Summary of microorganisms investigated using the chicken embryo model (CEM).
| Name | Day | T/RH°C/% | ED | Dose | Key findings | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli K-12, Salmonella Typhimurium | 13 | 37°C/45% | 11 | 4 × 106 – 2 × 107 CFU/100 μL | Dose-dependent embryo mortality and immune activation | [86] |
| Chlamydia psittaci, C. abortus | 12 | 37.8°C/60% | 10 | 5 × 104 IFU/egg | Successful infection and tissue colonization | [92] |
| Cryptococcus gattii | 18 | ND | 10 | 107 CFU/mL | Fungal dissemination | [97] |
| Clostridium perfringens, Eimeria tenella | 15 | 37.6°C/55% | 10, 15 | 104 CFU/100 μL | Gut lesions resembling avian intestinal disease | [98] |
| E. coli DH5α bioluminescent | 20 | 37.2–37.7°C/ND | 18 | 103 CFU/μL | Enabled in vivo tracking of bacterial distribution | [91] |
| Staphylococcus aureus | 12 | 38°C/80–90% | 9 | 102 CFU/μL | Embryo mortality; inflammatory response | [87] |
| Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium | 17 | 37°C/40–60% | 6, 10, 13, 16 | 106 CFU/μL | Dose- and time-dependent systemic infection | [99] |
| Enterococcus cecorum | 18 | 37°C/55% | 11 | 3.4 × 107 CFU/egg | Embryo mortality; liver/gut colonization | [100] |
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa | 6 | 37°C/80% | 5 | 105 CFU/μL (10 μL) | Rapid infection; high embryo lethality | [101] |
| Probiotic strains (E. faecium, Bacillus subtilis) | 19 | 37.5°C/54% | 17.5 | 5–16 × 109 CFU/egg | No adverse effects; microbiome modulation | [102] |
| Salmonella spp., APEC, Campylobacter jejuni | 10–17 | 37°C/58% | 10 | 3 log CFU/egg | Colonization; pathogen interaction studies | [96] |
| Salmonella pullorum, E. coli | 15 | 37°C/58% | 13 | 2–6 log CFU/embryo | Embryo mortality; pathogen-specific immunity | [103] |
| Neospora caninum | 8–18 | ND | 8 | 10–105 tachyzoites/embryo | Infection and parasite proliferation | [104] |
| Candida albicans | 18 | 37.6°C/60% | 7, 10 | 108 cells/egg | Colonization; embryo lethality | [105, 106] |
| Aspergillus fumigatus | 16 | 37.6°C/50–60% | 14 | 0.1 mL of 107–102 CFU | Respiratory lesions; dose-dependent | [107] |
M.R. acknowledges that the foundational knowledge underpinning this study was developed during a Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) project between AB Vista, ABITEC Corporation, and the University of Strathclyde.
MR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. CO: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft. MB: Project administration. ABM: Project administration. DK: Project administration. VAF: Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. The publication of the article is not subject to any financial or other restrictions.
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This work did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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