Exploration of BioMat-X

Table 1. Comparative overview of nanocarrier systems for antimicrobial applications.

Nanocarrier type	Key advantages	Key limitations	Relevance to AR
Metallic NPs (Ag, Au, Fe₃O₄) [31]	Strong intrinsic antibacterial activity; ROS generation	Long-term accumulation; oxidative toxicity	Effective against MDR bacteria; mainly topical/local use
Metal-oxide NPs (ZnO, TiO₂, CeO₂) [12]	Potent antibacterial and adjuvant effects	Cytotoxicity; limited biodegradability	Useful as antibiotic enhancers
Polymeric NPs (PLGA, chitosan) [47, 48]	Controlled release; tunable degradation	Monomer toxicity; batch variability	Sustained antibiotic delivery
Carbon-based nanomaterials [49, 50]	High surface area; membrane disruption	Safety and regulatory concerns	Promising but limited translation
LNPs [10, 51, 52]	High biocompatibility; biodegradability; scalable	Physical instability in some formulations	Strong translational potential

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AR: antibiotic resistance; LNPs: lipid nanoparticles; NP: nanoparticle.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

M.R. acknowledges that the foundational knowledge underpinning this study was developed during a Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) project between AB Vista, ABITEC Corporation, and the University of Strathclyde.

Author contributions

MR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. CO: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft. MB: Project administration. ABM: Project administration. DK: Project administration. VAF: Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. The publication of the article is not subject to any financial or other restrictions.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This work did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Copyright

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