“Cognitive Dysfunction” [MeSH] OR “Dementia” [MeSH] OR “Cognitive Decline” [tw] OR “Cognitive Impairment” [tw] OR “Mild Cognitive Impairment” [tw] OR “Early onset Dementia” [tw] OR “Young Onset Dementia” [tw]
#2
Context
“Cognitive Training” [MeSH] OR “Cognitive Training” [tw] OR “Cognitive Intervention” [tw] OR “Cognitive Rehabilitation” [tw] OR “Cognitive Stimulation” [tw]
#3
Concept
“Virtual Reality” [MeSH] OR “Virtual reality” [tw] OR “Fully Immersive Virtual Reality” [tw] OR “Immersive Virtual Reality” [tw] OR “Virtual Technolog*” [tw]
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
Ghosh M, Chejor P, Baker M, Porock D. A Systematic Review of Dementia Research Priorities.J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2024;37:343–54. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Patel NK, Masoud SS, Meyer K, Davila AV, Rivette S, Glassner AA, et al. Engaging multi-stakeholder perspectives to identify dementia care research priorities.J Patient Rep Outcomes. 2021;5:46. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang S, Xu H, Liu G, Chen L. Non-pharmacological treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: an update.Front Aging Neurosci. 2025;17:1527242. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC, Ivnik RJ, Tangalos EG, Kokmen E. Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome.Arch Neurol. 1999;56:303–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Anderson ND. State of the science on mild cognitive impairment (MCI).CNS Spectr. 2019;24:78–87. [DOI] [PubMed]
Schreiber M. Potential of an Interactive Computer-based Training in the Rehabilitation of Dementia: An Initial Study.Neuropsychol Rehabil. 1999;9:155–67. [DOI]
Astell AJ, Bouranis N, Hoey J, Lindauer A, Mihailidis A, Nugent C, et al. Technology and Dementia: The Future is Now.Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2019;47:131–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
To’mah V, du Toit SHJ. Potential of virtual reality to meaningfully engage adults living with dementia in care settings: A scoping review.Aust Occup Ther J. 2024;71:313–39. [DOI] [PubMed]
Slater M, Sanchez-Vives MV. Enhancing our lives with immersive virtual reality.Front Robot AI. 2016;3:74. [DOI]
Carroll J, Hopper L, Farrelly AM, Lombard-Vance R, Bamidis PD, Konstantinidis EI. A Scoping Review of Augmented/Virtual Reality Health and Wellbeing Interventions for Older Adults: Redefining Immersive Virtual Reality.Front Virtual Real. 2021;2:655338. [DOI]
Kaplan-Rakowski R, Gruber A. Low-Immersion versus High-Immersion Virtual Reality: Definitions, Classification, and Examples with a Foreign Language Focus. Rome: Pixel Online; 2019.
Bauer ACM, Andringa G. The Potential of Immersive Virtual Reality for Cognitive Training in Elderly.Gerontology. 2020;66:614–23. [DOI] [PubMed]
Huang W, Roscoe RD, Johnson-Glenberg MC, Craig SD. Motivation, engagement, and performance across multiple virtual reality sessions and levels of immersion.J Comput Assist Learn. 2021;37:745–58. [DOI]
Han J, Zheng Q, Ding Y. Lost in Virtual Reality? Cognitive Load in High Immersive VR Environments.J Adv Inf Technol. 2021;12:302–10. [DOI]
Lok B, Naik S, Whitton M, Brooks FP. Effects of Handling Real Objects and Self-Avatar Fidelity on Cognitive Task Performance and Sense of Presence in Virtual Environments.Presence: Teleoperators Virtual Env. 2003;12:615–28. [DOI]
D’Cunha NM, Nguyen D, Naumovski N, McKune AJ, Kellett J, Georgousopoulou EN, et al. A Mini-Review of Virtual Reality-Based Interventions to Promote Well-Being for People Living with Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment.Gerontology. 2019;65:430–40. [DOI] [PubMed]
Moulaei K, Sharifi H, Bahaadinbeigy K, Dinari F. Efficacy of virtual reality-based training programs and games on the improvement of cognitive disorders in patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC Psychiatry. 2024;24:116. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tortora C, Di Crosta A, La Malva P, Prete G, Ceccato I, Mammarella N, et al. Virtual reality and cognitive rehabilitation for older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review.Ageing Res Rev. 2024;93:102146. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kim O, Pang Y, Kim J. The effectiveness of virtual reality for people with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a meta-analysis.BMC Psychiatry. 2019;19:219. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hassandra M, Galanis E, Hatzigeorgiadis A, Goudas M, Mouzakidis C, Karathanasi EM, et al. Α Virtual Reality App for Physical and Cognitive Training of Older People With Mild Cognitive Impairment: Mixed Methods Feasibility Study.JMIR Serious Games. 2021;9:e24170. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Harvey PD, McGurk SR, Mahncke H, Wykes T. Controversies in Computerized Cognitive Training.Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 2018;3:907–15. [DOI] [PubMed]
Karbach J, Verhaeghen P. Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults.Psychol Sci. 2014;25:2027–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Melby-Lervåg M, Hulme C. There is no convincing evidence that working memory training is effective: A reply to Au et al. There is no convincing evidence that working memory training is effective: A reply to Au et al. (2014) and Karbach and Verhaeghen (2014).Psychon Bull Rev. 2016;23:324–30. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sala G, Gobet F. Cognitive Training Does Not Enhance General Cognition.Trends Cogn Sci. 2019;23:9–20. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ledreux A, Håkansson K, Carlsson R, Kidane M, Columbo L, Terjestam Y, et al. Differential Effects of Physical Exercise, Cognitive Training, and Mindfulness Practice on Serum BDNF Levels in Healthy Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Intervention Study.J Alzheimers Dis. 2019;71:1245–61. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Mehla J, Deibel SH, Karem H, Hong NS, Hossain SR, Lacoursiere SG, et al. Repeated multi-domain cognitive training prevents cognitive decline, anxiety and amyloid pathology found in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease.Commun Biol. 2023;6:1145. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Park JH. Effects of virtual reality-based spatial cognitive training on hippocampal function of older adults with mild cognitive impairment.Int Psychogeriatr. 2022;34:157–63. [DOI] [PubMed]
Thapa N, Park HJ, Yang J, Son H, Jang M, Lee J, et al. The Effect of a Virtual Reality-Based Intervention Program on Cognition in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized Control Trial.J Clin Med. 2020;9:1283. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chiu HM, Hsu MC, Ouyang WC. Effects of incorporating virtual reality training intervention into health care on cognitive function and wellbeing in older adults with cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial.Int J Hum Comput Stud. 2023;170:102957. [DOI]
Stern Y. What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept.J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2002;8:448–60. [PubMed]
Stern Y. Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease.Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2006;20:112–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation.Ann Intern Med. 2018;169:467–73. [DOI] [PubMed]
Petersen RC. Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity.J Intern Med. 2004;256:183–94. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kurz A. Cognitive stimulation, training, and rehabilitation.Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2019;21:35–41.
McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic.Biochem Med (Zagreb). 2012;22:276–82. [PubMed] [PMC]
Park JH, Liao Y, Kim DR, Song S, Lim JH, Park H, et al. Feasibility and Tolerability of a Culture-Based Virtual Reality (VR) Training Program in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:3030. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhu K, Zhang Q, He B, Huang M, Lin R, Li H. Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Cognitive Intervention for the Improvement of Cognitive Function, Depression, and Perceived Stress in Older Adults With Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Dementia: Pilot Pre-Post Study.JMIR Serious Games. 2022;10:e32117. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zając-Lamparska L, Wiłkość-Dȩbczyńska M, Wojciechowski A, Podhorecka M, Polak-Szabela A, Warchoł Ł, et al. Effects of virtual reality-based cognitive training in older adults living without and with mild dementia: A pretest-posttest design pilot study.BMC Res Notes. 2019;12:776. [DOI]
Zając-Lamparska L, Wiłkość-Dębczyńska M, Kędziora-Kornatowska K, Wojciechowski A, Warchoł Ł, Izdebski P. Virtual reality in cognitive interventions for older adults and its application in the GRADYS training software.GERONTOL POL. 2017;25:248–53.
Kang JM, Kim N, Lee SY, Woo SK, Park G, Yeon BK, et al. Effect of Cognitive Training in Fully Immersive Virtual Reality on Visuospatial Function and Frontal-Occipital Functional Connectivity in Predementia: Randomized Controlled Trial.J Med Internet Res. 2021;23:e24526. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Maeng S, Hong JP, Kim WH, Kim H, Cho SE, Kang JM, et al. Effects of Virtual Reality-Based Cognitive Training in the Elderly with and without Mild Cognitive Impairment.Psychiatry Investig. 2021;18:619–27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yang JG, Thapa N, Park H, Bae S, Park KW, Park JH, et al. Virtual Reality and Exercise Training Enhance Brain, Cognitive, and Physical Health in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment.Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:13300. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
White PJF, Moussavi Z. Neurocognitive Treatment for a Patient with Alzheimer’s Disease Using a Virtual Reality Navigational Environment.J Exp Neurosci. 2016;10:129–35. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Freitas S, Simões MR, Alves L, Santana I. Montreal cognitive assessment: validation study for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease.Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2013;27:37–43. [DOI] [PubMed]
Byagowi A, Mohaddes D, Moussavi Z. Design and Application of a Novel Virtual Reality Navigational Technology (VRNChair).J Exp Neurosci. 2014;8:7–14. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Yun SJ, Kang M, Yang D, Choi Y, Kim H, Oh BM, et al. Cognitive Training Using Fully Immersive, Enriched Environment Virtual Reality for Patients With Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Dementia: Feasibility and Usability Study.JMIR Serious Games. 2020;8:e18127. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Zhao Y, Li L, He X, Yin S, Zhou Y, Marquez-Chin C, et al. Psychodynamic-based virtual reality cognitive training system with personalized emotional arousal elements for mild cognitive impairment patients.Comput Methods Programs Biomed. 2023;241:107779. [DOI] [PubMed]
Irazoki E, Contreras-Somoza LM, Toribio-Guzmán JM, Jenaro-Río C, van der Roest H, Franco-Martín MA. Technologies for Cognitive Training and Cognitive Rehabilitation for People With Mild Cognitive Impairment and Dementia. A Systematic Review.Front Psychol. 2020;11:648. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Nyberg ST, Singh-Manoux A, Pentti J, Madsen IEH, Sabia S, Alfredsson L, et al. Association of Healthy Lifestyle With Years Lived Without Major Chronic Diseases.JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180:760–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Watve M, Keskar Sardeshmukh A. “Vitaction” deficiency: a possible root cause for multiple lifestyle disorders including Alzheimer’s disease.Explor Neuroprotective Ther. 2024;4:108–18. [DOI]
Franco R. Vitactions: vitamins for the brain.Explor Neuroprotective Ther. 2024;4:300–7. [DOI]
Ijaz K, Tran TTM, Kocaballi AB, Calvo RA, Berkovsky S, Ahmadpour N. Design Considerations for Immersive Virtual Reality Applications for Older Adults: A Scoping Review.Multimodal Technol Interact. 2022;6:60. [DOI]
Maloney D, Freeman G, Robb A. Social virtual reality: Ethical considerations and future directions for an emerging research space. Proceeding of 2021 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW); 2021 Mar 27–Apr 1; Lisbon, Portugal. IEEE; pp. 271–7. [DOI]
Turnbull A, Seitz A, Tadin D, Lin FV. Unifying framework for cognitive training interventions in brain aging.Ageing Res Rev. 2022;81:101724. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
