Exploration of Neuroprotective Therapy

Table 1. Currently approved Parkinson’s disease treatments.

Classes/Types	Examples of drugs	Mechanisms of action
Levodopa-based therapy	Levodopa + carbidopa, levodopa + benserazide	Levodopa is converted to dopamine in the brain; carbidopa/benserazide prevents peripheral disintegration
Dopamine agonists	Pramipexole, ropinirole, and apomorphine	They mimic dopamine by direct activation of the dopamine receptor
COMT inhibitors	Opicapone, tolcapone, and entacapone	They block COMT, prolonging the levodopa effect
MAO-B inhibitor	Rasagiline, selegiline, and safinamide	They inhibit MAO-B, decreasing dopamine breakdown
Amantadine	Amantadine	NMDA receptor antagonist; enhances dopamine release and decreases reuptake
Anticholinergics	Benztropine and trihexyphenidyl	They block ACh receptors, restoring the balance of dopamine-ACh
Surgical therapy	Deep brain stimulation	Electrical stimulation of the basal ganglia

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COMT: catecholamine-O-methyl transferase; MAO-B: monoamine oxidase-B; NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate; ACh: acetylcholine.

Declarations

Author contributions

AOA: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. GOO: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. GAF: Validation, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

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Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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