Table Info

Table 2.

Mean group differences in BMI, BP, MAP, and cognitive function

Variables	Age				Gender				Ethnicity
Variables	80s	100s	F	η²	Male	Female	F	η²	White	Black	F	η²
BMI (kg/m²)	25.92	22.96	18.55^***	0.07	24.86	23.53	2.80⁺	0.01	23.37	25.25	6.25^*	0.03
SBP	131.76	127.55	2.91⁺	0.01	129.28	128.63	0.16	0.00	127.07	134.37	7.10^**	0.03
DBP	75.34	73.70	1.30	0.01	73.50	74.34	0.24	0.00	73.36	76.86	5.13^*	0.02
MAP	94.15	91.65	2.79^*	0.01	92.09	92.44	0.01	0.00	91.27	96.03	8.62^**	0.03
Cognitive function	25.04	17.47	45.57^***	0.13	22.70	18.54	11.08^**	0.04	20.78	15.39	20.12^**	0.06

Age, gender, and ethnicity differences for BMI, SBP, DBP, MAP, and cognitive function after controlling for hypertension medication; ⁺ P < 0.10; ^* P < 0.05; ^** P < 0.01; ^*** P < 0.001; F: F-test; η²: eta-squared

Declarations

Acknowledgments

Authors acknowledge the valuable recruitment and data acquisition effort by M. Burgess, K. Grier, E. Jackson, E. McCarthy, K. Shaw, L. Strong, and S. Reynolds, data acquisition team manager; S. Anderson, E. Cassidy, M. Janke, and J. Savla, data management; M. Poon, project fiscal management.

Author contributions

PM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. RA: Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. MK: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. KG: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. YG: Writing—review & editing. MAJ: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. LWP: Supervision Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

The study was approved by the Institutional Review Boards (IRB) at the University of Georgia and Iowa State University (XX-026) and complied with Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent to participate

Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Data are available from the principal investigator of the study Leonard W. Poon (lpoon8122@gmail.com).

Funding

The Georgia Centenarian Study was funded by [1P01AG17553] from the National Institute on Aging, a collaboration among The University of Georgia, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, Boston University, University of Kentucky, Emory University, Duke University, Wayne State University, Iowa State University, Temple University, and University of Michigan. Additional investigators of the Georgia Centenarian Study include S. M. Jazwinski, R. C. Green, M. MacDonald, M. Gearing, W. R. Markesbery (deceased), J. L. Woodard, M. A. Johnson, J. S. Tenover, I. C. Siegler, W. L. Rodgers, D. B. Hausman, C. Rott, A. Davey, and J. Arnold. The first author’s work on the project was supported by the Fulbright Commission and by United States Department of Agriculture, Hatch Project Grant, [IOW04116]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

References

Bays HE, Chapman RH, Grandy S; SHIELD Investigators’ Group. The relationship of body mass index to diabetes mellitus, hypertension and dyslipidaemia: comparison of data from two national surveys. Int J Clin Pract. 2007;61:737–47. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Rapsomaniki E, Timmis A, George J, Pujades-Rodriguez M, Shah AD, Denaxas S, et al. Blood pressure and incidence of twelve cardiovascular diseases: lifetime risks, healthy life-years lost, and age-specific associations in 1·25 million people. Lancet. 2014;383:1899–911. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Schaie KW. Individual differences in rate of cognitive change in adulthood. In: Bengston VL, Schaie KW, editors. The course of later life: research and reflections. New York: Springer; 1989. pp. 65–85.

Inagaki H, Gondo Y, Hirose N, Masui Y, Kitagawa K, Arai Y, et al. Cognitive function in Japanese centenarians according to the Mini-Mental State Examination. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2009;28:6–12. [DOI] [PubMed]

Wang B, He P, Dong B. Association between family functioning and cognitive impairment among Chinese nonagenarians/centenarians. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2015;15:1135–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

Stathakos D, Pratsinis H, Zachos I, Vlahaki I, Gianakopoulou A, Zianni D, et al. Greek centenarians: assessment of functional health status and life-style characteristics. Exp Gerontol. 2005;40:512–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

Ravaglia G, Forti P, De Ronchi D, Maioli F, Nesi B, Cucinotta D, et al. Prevalence and severity of dementia among northern Italian centenarians. Neurology. 1999;53:416–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

Poon LW, Woodard JL, Stephen Miller L, Green R, Gearing M, Davey A, et al. Understanding dementia prevalence among centenarians. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2012;67:358–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL, Lindstrom RC, Steig AJ, Stob NR, et al. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:777–822. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

10.

Knight JA. Diseases and disorders associated with excess body weight. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2011;41:107–21. [PubMed]

11.

García-Ptacek S, Faxén-Irving G, Cermáková P, Eriksdotter M, Religa D. Body mass index in dementia. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68:1204–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Schmeidler J, Mastrogiacomo CN, Beeri MS, Rosendorff C, Silverman JM. Distinct age-related associations for body mass index and cognition in cognitively healthy very old veterans. Int Psychogeriatr. 2019;31:895–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

13.

Martin P, Gondo Y, Arai Y, Ishioka Y, Johnson MA, Miller LS, et al. Cardiovascular health and cognitive functioning among centenarians: a comparison between the Tokyo and Georgia centenarian studies. Int Psychogeriatr. 2019;31:455–65. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

14.

Kim S, Kim Y, Park SM. Body mass index and decline of cognitive function. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0148908. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Liang F, Fu J, Moore JB, Zhang X, Xu Y, Qiu N, et al. Body mass index, waist circumference, and cognitive decline among chinese older adults: a nationwide retrospective cohort study. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:737532. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Driscoll I, Espeland MA, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Gaussoin SA, Ding J, Granek IA, et al.; Women’s Health Initiative Study of Cognitive Aging. Weight change and cognitive function: findings from the Women’s Health Initiative Study of Cognitive Aging. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011;19:1595–600. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Hazra NC, Dregan A, Jackson S, Gulliford MC. Differences in health at age 100 according to sex: population-based cohort study of centenarians using electronic health records. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:1331–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Poon LW, Johnson MA, Davey A, Dawson DV, Siegler IC, Martin P. Psycho-social predictors of survival among centenarians. In: Martin P, Rott C, Hagberg B, Morgan K, editors. Centenarians: autonomy versus dependence in the oldest old. New York: Springer; 2000. pp. 77–89.

19.

Pedrinelli R, Ballo P, Fiorentini C, Denti S, Galderisi M, Ganau A, et al.; Gruppo di Studio Ipertensione e Cuore, Societa’ Italiana di Cardiologia. Hypertension and acute myocardial infarction: an overview. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown). 2012;13:194–202. [DOI] [PubMed]

20.

Rasmussen SH, Andersen-Ranberg K. Health in centenarians. In: Pachana N, editor. Encyclopedia of Geropsychology. Singapore: Springer; 2017. pp. 1005–18.

21.

Kheirbek RE, Fokar A, Shara N, Bell-Wilson LK, Moore HJ, Olsen E, et al. Characteristics and incidence of chronic illness in community-dwelling predominantly male U.S. veteran centenarians. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65:2100–6. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Koujiya E, Kabayama M, Yamamoto M, Akiyama M, Higami Y, Kodama K, et al. Associations of blood pressure levels with clinical events in older patients receiving home medical care. Hypertens Res. 2021;44:197–205. [DOI] [PubMed]

23.

Benetos A, Petrovic M, Strandberg T. Hypertension management in older and frail older patients. Circ Res. 2019;124:1045–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

24.

Franklin SS, Larson MG, Khan SA, Wong ND, Leip EP, Kannel WB, et al. Does the relation of blood pressure to coronary heart disease risk change with aging? The framingham heart study. Circulation. 2001;103:1245–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

25.

Khattar RS, Swales JD, Dore C, Senior R, Lahiri A. Effect of aging on the prognostic significance of ambulatory systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressure in essential hypertension. Circulation. 2001;104:783–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

26.

Gifford KA, Badaracco M, Liu D, Tripodis Y, Gentile A, Lu Z, et al. Blood pressure and cognition among older adults: a meta-analysis. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2013;28:649–64. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

27.

Goldstein FC, Levey AI, Steenland NK. High blood pressure and cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:67–73. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

28.

Moll AC, Woodard JL. Hypertension and cognition are minimally associated in late life. Hypertens Res. 2022;45:1622–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

29.

Kuyumcu ME, Yesil Y, Yavuz BB, Halil M, Cankurtaran M, Arıoğul S. Relationship between blood pressure and physical and cognitive function in the oldest old. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:828–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

30.

Ogliari G, Sabayan B, Mari D, Rossi PD, Lucchi TA, de Craen AJ, et al. Age- and functional status–dependent association between blood pressure and cognition: the Milan geriatrics 75+ cohort study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:1741–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Euser SM, van Bemmel T, Schram MT, Gussekloo J, Hofman A, Westendorp RG, et al. The effect of age on the association between blood pressure and cognitive function later in life. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57:1232–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

32.

Sabayan B, Oleksik AM, Maier AB, van Buchem MA, Poortvliet RK, de Ruijter W, et al. High blood pressure and resilience to physical and cognitive decline in the oldest old: the Leiden 85-plus study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:2014–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Molander L, Gustafson Y, Lövheim H. Longitudinal associations between blood pressure and dementia in the very old. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;30:269–76. [DOI] [PubMed]

34.

van Vliet P, Westendorp RG, van Heemst D, de Craen AJ, Oleksik AM. Cognitive decline precedes late-life longitudinal changes in vascular risk factors. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81:1028–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Harrison SL, Stephan BC, Siervo M, Granic A, Davies K, Wesnes KA, et al. Is there an association between metabolic syndrome and cognitive function in very old adults? the Newcastle 85+ study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:667–75. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

Kabayama M, Kamide K, Gondo Y, Masui Y, Nakagawa T, Ogawa M, et al.; SONIC study group. The association of blood pressure with physical frailty and cognitive function in community-dwelling septuagenarians, octogenarians, and nonagenarians: the SONIC study. Hypertens Res. 2020;43:1421–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

Szewieczek J, Dulawa J, Francuz T, Legierska K, Hornik B, Włodarczyk-Sporek I, et al. Mildly elevated blood pressure is a marker for better health status in Polish centenarians. Age (Dordr). 2015;37:4. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

de Munter JS, Agyemang C, van Valkengoed IG, Bhopal R, Stronks K. Sex difference in blood pressure among South Asian diaspora in Europe and North America and the role of BMI: a meta-analysis. J Hum Hypertens. 2011;25:407–17. [DOI] [PubMed]

39.

Evert J, Lawler E, Bogan H, Perls T. Morbidity profiles of centenarians: survivors, delayers, and escapers. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003;58:232–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

40.

Zhao B, Jose PO, Pu J, Chung S, Ancheta IB, Fortmann SP, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in hypertension prevalence, treatment, and control for outpatients in northern California 2010–2012. Am J Hypertens. 2015;28:631–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

41.

Tsang S, Sperling SA, Park MH, Helenius IM, Williams IC, Manning C. Blood pressure variability and cognitive function among older African Americans: introducing a new blood pressure variability measure. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2017;30:90–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

42.

Iadecola C, Yaffe K, Biller J, Bratzke LC, Faraci FM, Gorelick PB, et al.; American Heart Association Council on Hypertension; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; Stroke Council. Impact of hypertension on cognitive function: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension. 2016;68:e67–94. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

43.

Poon LW, Jazwinski M, Green RC, Woodard JL, Martin P, Rodgers WL, et al. Methodological considerations in studying centenarians: lessons learned from the Georgia centenarian studies. Annu Rev Gerontol Geriatr. 2007;27:231–64. [PubMed] [PMC]

44.

Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. “Mini-mental state”. a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975;12:189–98. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

Schrepp M. The use of configural frequency analysis for explorative data analysis. Br J Math Stat Psychol. 2006;59:59–73. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

von Eye A. Introduction to configural frequency analysis: the search for types and antitypes in cross-classifications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990.

47.

Martin P, Baenziger J, Macdonald M, Siegler IC, Poon LW. Engaged lifestyle, personality, and mental status among centenarians. J Adult Dev. 2009;16:199–208. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

48.

Arai Y, Hirose N, Nakazawa S, Yamamura K, Shimizu K, Takayama M, et al. Lipoprotein metabolism in Japanese centenarians: effects of apolipoprotein E polymorphism and nutritional status. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49:1434–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

49.

Dahl AK, Fauth EB, Ernsth-Bravell M, Hassing LB, Ram N, Gerstof D. Body mass index, change in body mass index, and survival in old and very old persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:512–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

50.

Suemoto CK, Gilsanz P, Mayeda ER, Glymour MM. Body mass index and cognitive function: the potential for reverse causation. Int J Obes (Lond). 2015;39:1383–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]