Exploration of BioMat-X

Table 3. Engineering biomaterial properties to control the cellular microenvironment.

Property	How to control it	Key techniques for control	Impact on cell behavior
Porosity	Polymer concentration Crosslinker ratio/type Porogen (e.g., salt, sugar) leaching Gas foaming Freeze-drying (cryogelation)	Electrospinning (fiber spacing) 3D bioprinting (strand deposition) Particulate leaching Solvent casting	Nutrient/waste diffusion: high porosity enhances transport. Cell migration/invasion: Pore size dictates if cells can infiltrate. Vascularization: critical for promoting blood vessel ingrowth.
Topography	Master mold fabrication (lithography) Fiber alignment (electrospinning) Surface patterning Scaffold architecture design	Soft lithography Micro/nano-patterning Electrospinning 3D bioprinting	Cell alignment: grooves/fibers guide cell orientation (e.g., neurites, muscle cells). Focal adhesion: nanoscale features alter integrin binding and signaling. Migration: contact guidance directs cell movement.
Stiffness	Polymer concentration Crosslinking density (UV intensity, time, initiator concentration) Polymer choice (e.g., PEG vs. alginate)	Tunable hydrogels (PAAm, PEGDA) Hybrid systems (e.g., GelMA) Dynamic crosslinking	Stem cell differentiation: Soft matrices (~0.1–1 kPa) promote neurogenesis; stiffer matrices (~10 kPa) promote osteogenesis. Cancer progression: increased stiffness can promote invasion and EMT. Cell spreading: Stiffer substrates typically promote greater cell spreading and traction.

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Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this work, the authors used Napkin AI for creating the Figures and QuillBot for improving language clarity and grammar. No AI tools were used for scientific writing, data analysis, or interpretation. After using these tools, the authors thoroughly reviewed and edited all content and take full responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the publication.

Author contributions

SC: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Visualization. AD: Methodology, Writing—original draft, Visualization. AS: Methodology, Writing—original draft. PZ: Writing—review & editing. NG: Writing—review & editing. RS: Writing—review & editing. VT: Writing—review & editing. LMA: Writing—review & editing, Supervision. DG: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. All authors have read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

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