Summary of outcomes of bacteriophage therapy in different clinical trials.
| Category | Study type | Findings | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Preclinical studies | Animal models [17, 18] | Studies using mouse and rat models of liver cirrhosis to assess the efficacy of bacteriophage therapy. | Reduction in bacterial load, improvement in liver enzymes (ALT, AST), and decrease in markers of liver inflammation. |
| Experimental design [19] | Phages were administered via oral, intravenous, or intraperitoneal routes. | Reduced gut-derived endotoxemia and improved gut barrier integrity. | |
| Mechanism of action [20] | Phages target pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which exacerbate cirrhosis. | Restoration of gut microbiota and prevention of bacterial translocation to the liver. | |
| Clinical studies | Randomized trials [21–23] | Few RCTs have investigated bacteriophage therapy in patients with cirrhosis. | Preliminary data show improvements in gut microbiota balance and a reduction in systemic inflammation markers. |
| Safety and tolerability [24] | No serious adverse events reported; mild gastrointestinal symptoms noted. | Safe for human administration; no significant hepatotoxicity observed. | |
| Efficacy [25] | Clinical improvement in symptoms of hepatic encephalopathy was reported in certain trials. | Reduced neuroinflammation and improved cognitive function. | |
| Case reports and observations | Individual cases [26] | Isolated cases where phage therapy was used as a last-resort treatment for cirrhosis-related infections. | Successful eradication of multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. |
| Anecdotal evidence [27] | Reports from compassionate use programs for critically ill cirrhosis patients. | Reduced infection-related mortality and prevention of sepsis in cirrhotic patients. | |
| Clinical outcomes [27] | Phages successfully targeted pathogens like Enterococcus faecium in cirrhosis-associated infections. | Shortened hospital stays and reduced need for antibiotics in reported cases. |
ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; RCTs: randomized controlled trials.