Table Info

Table 7.

Possible mechanisms through which antidepressants may increase the risk of AD and related dementias

Mechanism	Description
Immune-inflammatory dysregulation	Drug-induced reduction in levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13); stimulation of NK and B cell activity; shift in microglial activation towards a neuroinflammatory phenotype
Increased risk of infection	Possible immunosuppressive effect caused by reductions in CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α; reduction in white cell count; reduction in CD4+ count
Gut-brain dysbiosis	Drug-induced reduction in gut commensals and increase in pro-inflammatory bacteria in animal models; antibacterial effect on common gut commensals in vitro, including on beneficial species such as Lactobacillus
Stress axis dysfunction	Failure to normalize HPA axis dysfunction; reduced effectiveness in the presence of HPA axis dysregulation; persistence of ongoing stressors despite relief of depressive symptoms
Others	Possible acceleration of normal aging in animal models; possible changes in cerebral microvasculature leading to local ischemia; suppression of REM sleep and precipitation of REM sleep behavior disorder

CRP: C-reactive protein

Declarations

Author contributions

RPR: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. The author has read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

References

Li X, Feng X, Sun X, Hou N, Han F, Liu Y. Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, 1990–2019. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:937486. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators. Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Public Health. 2022;7:e105–25. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Mattap SM, Mohan D, McGrattan AM, Allotey P, Stephan BCM, Reidpath DD, et al. The economic burden of dementia in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): a systematic review. BMJ Glob Health. 2022;7:e007409. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Rakesh G, Szabo ST, Alexopoulos GS, Zannas AS. Strategies for dementia prevention: latest evidence and implications. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2017;8:121–36. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Bodryzlova Y, Mehrabi F, Bosson A, Maïano C, André C, Bélanger E, et al. The potential of social policies in preventing dementia: an ecological study using systematic review and meta-analysis. J Aging Soc Policy. 2023:1–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

Sabbagh MN, Perez A, Holland TM, Boustani M, Peabody SR, Yaffe K, et al. Primary prevention recommendations to reduce the risk of cognitive decline. Alzheimers Dement. 2022;18:1569–79. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Larsen EN, Sloth MM, Osler M, Wium-Andersen IK, Jørgensen TSH. Depression in adulthood and risk of dementia later in life: a Danish register-based cohort study of 595,828 men. J Affect Disord. 2022;302:25–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

Stafford J, Chung WT, Sommerlad A, Kirkbride JB, Howard R. Psychiatric disorders and risk of subsequent dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2022;37:10.1002/gps.5711. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

Zhao Q, Xiang H, Cai Y, Meng SS, Zhang Y, Qiu P. Systematic evaluation of the associations between mental disorders and dementia: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. J Affect Disord. 2022;307:301–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

10.

Chang WH, Su CC, Chen KC, Hsiao YY, Chen PS, Yang YK. Which severe mental illnesses most increase the risk of developing dementia? Comparing the risk of dementia in patients with schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2023;21:478–87. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

11.

Kessing LV, Andersen PK. Evidence for clinical progression of unipolar and bipolar disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2017;135:51–64. [DOI] [PubMed]

12.

Huang CJ, Weng SF, Wang JJ, Hsieh HM. Competing risk analysis of the association between dementia and major depressive disorder: a nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Aging Ment Health. 2021;25:766–72. [DOI] [PubMed]

13.

Brzezinska A, Bourke J, Rivera-Hernandez R, Tsolaki M, Wozniak J, Kazmierski J. Depression in dementia or dementia in depression? Systematic review of studies and hypotheses. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2020;17:16–28. [DOI] [PubMed]

14.

Haapakoski R, Mathieu J, Ebmeier KP, Alenius H, Kivimäki M. Cumulative meta-analysis of interleukins 6 and 1β, tumour necrosis factor α and C-reactive protein in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;49:206–15. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

15.

Osimo EF, Baxter LJ, Lewis G, Jones PB, Khandaker GM. Prevalence of low-grade inflammation in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of CRP levels. Psychol Med. 2019;49:1958–70. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

16.

Kouba BR, Gil-Mohapel J, Rodrigues ALS. NLRP3 inflammasome: from pathophysiology to therapeutic target in major depressive disorder. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:133. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

17.

Jeon SW, Kim YK. Neuroinflammation and cytokine abnormality in major depression: cause or consequence in that illness? World J Psychiatry. 2016;6:283–93. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

18.

Furtado M, Katzman MA. Examining the role of neuroinflammation in major depression. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229:27–36. [DOI] [PubMed]

19.

Eggerstorfer B, Kim JH, Cumming P, Lanzenberger R, Gryglewski G. Meta-analysis of molecular imaging of translocator protein in major depression. Front Mol Neurosci. 2022;15:981442. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

20.

Miller ES, Sakowicz A, Roy A, Yang A, Sullivan JT, Grobman WA, et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory cytokines in perinatal depression. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2019;220:271.e1–271.e10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

21.

Hakim A. Perspectives on the complex links between depression and dementia. Front Aging Neurosci. 2022;14:821866. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

22.

Wu KY, Lin KJ, Chen CH, Cheng CS, Liu CY, Huang SY, et al. Diversity of neurodegenerative pathophysiology in nondemented patients with major depressive disorder: evidence of cerebral amyloidosis and hippocampal atrophy. Brain Behav. 2018;8:e01016. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

23.

Dolotov OV, Inozemtseva LS, Myasoedov NF, Grivennikov IA. Stress-induced depression and Alzheimer’s disease: focus on astrocytes. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:4999. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

24.

Pomara N, Bruno D, Plaska CR, Ramos-Cejudo J, Osorio RS, Pillai A, et al. Plasma amyloid-β dynamics in late-life major depression: a longitudinal study. Transl Psychiatry. 2022;12:301. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

25.

Herman FJ, Simkovic S, Pasinetti GM. Neuroimmune nexus of depression and dementia: shared mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Br J Pharmacol. 2019;176:3558–84. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

26.

Wang ZT, Fu Y, Zhang YR, Chen SD, Huang SY, Yang L, et al. Modified dementia risk score as a tool for the prediction of dementia: a prospective cohort study of 239745 participants. Transl Psychiatry. 2022;12:509. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

27.

World Health Organization. Depression and other common mental disorders: global health estimates. Geneva: The Organization; 2017.

28.

GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 2022;9:137–50. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

29.

Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, Chaimani A, Atkinson LZ, Ogawa Y, et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018;391:1357–66. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

30.

Gartlehner G, Dobrescu A, Chapman A, Toromanova A, Emprechtinger R, Persad E, et al. Nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic treatments of adult patients with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis for a clinical guideline by the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2023;176:196–211. [DOI] [PubMed]

31.

Dafsari FS, Jessen F. Depression—an underrecognized target for prevention of dementia in Alzheimer’s disease. Transl Psychiatry. 2020;10:160. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

32.

Davidson SK, Romaniuk H, Chondros P, Dowrick C, Pirkis J, Herrman H, et al. Antidepressant treatment for primary care patients with depressive symptoms: data from the diamond longitudinal cohort study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2020;54:367–81. [DOI] [PubMed]

33.

Pillai A, Keyes KM, Susser E. Antidepressant prescriptions and adherence in primary care in India: insights from a cluster randomized control trial. PLoS One. 2021;16:e0248641. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

34.

Coley N, Giulioli C, Aisen PS, Vellas B, Andrieu S. Randomised controlled trials for the prevention of cognitive decline or dementia: a systematic review. Ageing Res Rev. 2022;82:101777. [DOI] [PubMed]

35.

Blier P. Neurobiology of depression and mechanism of action of depression treatments. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77:e319. [DOI] [PubMed]

36.

Khushboo, Siddiqi NJ, de Lourdes Pereira M, Sharma B. Neuroanatomical, biochemical, and functional modifications in brain induced by treatment with antidepressants. Mol Neurobiol. 2022;59:3564–84. [DOI] [PubMed]

37.

Cai S, Huang S, Hao W. New hypothesis and treatment targets of depression: an integrated view of key findings. Neurosci Bull. 2015;31:61–74. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

38.

Tizabi Y. Duality of antidepressants and neuroprotectants. Neurotox Res. 2016;30:1–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

39.

Çakici N, Sutterland AL, Penninx BWJH, de Haan L, van Beveren NJM. Changes in peripheral blood compounds following psychopharmacological treatment in drug-naïve first-episode patients with either schizophrenia or major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2021;51:538–49. [DOI] [PMC]

40.

Köhler CA, Freitas TH, Stubbs B, Maes M, Solmi M, Veronese N, et al. Peripheral alterations in cytokine and chemokine levels after antidepressant drug treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Neurobiol. 2018;55:4195–206. [DOI] [PubMed]

41.

West PK, McCorkindale AN, Guennewig B, Ashhurst TM, Viengkhou B, Hayashida E, et al. The cytokines interleukin-6 and interferon-α induce distinct microglia phenotypes. J Neuroinflammation. 2022;19:96. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

42.

Wiatrak B, Jawień P, Szeląg A, Jęśkowiak-Kossakowska I. Does inflammation play a major role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease? Neuromolecular Med. 2023;25:330–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

43.

Mariani N, Everson J, Pariante CM, Borsini A. Modulation of microglial activation by antidepressants. J Psychopharmacol. 2022;36:131–50. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

44.

Chan JYC, Yiu KKL, Kwok TCY, Wong SYS, Tsoi KKF. Depression and antidepressants as potential risk factors in dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 longitudinal studies. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2019;20:279–86.e1. [DOI] [PubMed]

45.

Harrison NA. Brain structures implicated in inflammation-associated depression. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2017;31:221–48. [DOI] [PubMed]

46.

Martin-Subero M, Anderson G, Kanchanatawan B, Berk M, Maes M. Comorbidity between depression and inflammatory bowel disease explained by immune-inflammatory, oxidative, and nitrosative stress; tryptophan catabolite; and gut-brain pathways. CNS Spectr. 2016;21:184–98. [DOI] [PubMed]

47.

Zhang C. Flare-up of cytokines in rheumatoid arthritis and their role in triggering depression: shared common function and their possible applications in treatment (Review). Biomed Rep. 2021;14:16. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

48.

Forb es MP, O’Neil A, Lane M, Agustini B, Myles N, Berk M. Major depressive disorder in older patients as an inflammatory disorder: implications for the pharmacological management of geriatric depression. Drugs Aging. 2021;38:451–67. [DOI] [PubMed]

49.

Dinan TG. Inflammatory markers in depression. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2009;22:32–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

50.

Zunszain PA, Anacker C, Cattaneo A, Carvalho LA, Pariante CM. Glucocorticoids, cytokines and brain abnormalities in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2011;35:722–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

51.

Numakawa T, Richards M, Nakajima S, Adachi N, Furuta M, Odaka H, et al. The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in comorbid depression: possible linkage with steroid hormones, cytokines, and nutrition. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:136. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

52.

Porter GA, O’Connor JC. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and inflammation in depression: pathogenic partners in crime? World J Psychiatry. 2022;12:77–97. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

53.

Liu JJ, Wei YB, Strawbridge R, Bao Y, Chang S, Shi L, et al. Peripheral cytokine levels and response to antidepressant treatment in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry. 2020;25:339–50. [DOI] [PubMed]

54.

Gędek A, Szular Z, Antosik AZ, Mierzejewski P, Dominiak M. Celecoxib for mood disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Med. 2023;12:3497. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

55.

Byrne ML, Whittle S, Allen NB. The role of brain structure and function in the association between inflammation and depressive symptoms: a systematic review. Psychosom Med. 2016;78:389–400. [DOI] [PubMed]

56.

Hedley KE, Callister RJ, Callister R, Horvat JC, Tadros MA. Alterations in brainstem respiratory centers following peripheral inflammation: a systematic review. J Neuroimmunol. 2022;369:577903. [DOI] [PubMed]

57.

Bauer ME, Teixeira AL. Neuroinflammation in mood disorders: role of regulatory immune cells. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2021;28:99–107. [DOI] [PubMed]

58.

Kim YK, Na KS, Myint AM, Leonard BE. The role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in neuroinflammation, neurogenesis and the neuroendocrine system in major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016;64:277–84. [DOI] [PubMed]

59.

Krishnadas R, Cavanagh J. Depression: an inflammatory illness? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2012;83:495–502. [DOI] [PubMed]

60.

Li Z, Wang H, Yin Y. Peripheral inflammation is a potential etiological factor in Alzheimer’s disease. Rev Neurosci. 2023;35:99–120. [DOI] [PubMed]

61.

Lai KSP, Liu CS, Rau A, Lanctôt KL, Köhler CA, Pakosh M, et al. Peripheral inflammatory markers in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 175 studies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2017;88:876–82. [DOI] [PubMed]

62.

O’Neill E, Kwok B, Day JS, Connor TJ, Harkin A. Amitriptyline protects against TNF-α-induced atrophy and reduction in synaptic markers via a Trk-dependent mechanism. Pharmacol Res Perspect. 2016;4:e00195. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

63.

Valera E, Ubhi K, Mante M, Rockenstein E, Masliah E. Antidepressants reduce neuroinflammatory responses and astroglial alpha-synuclein accumulation in a transgenic mouse model of multiple system atrophy. Glia. 2014;62:317–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

64.

Hwang J, Zheng LT, Ock J, Lee MG, Kim SH, Lee HW, et al. Inhibition of glial inflammatory activation and neurotoxicity by tricyclic antidepressants. Neuropharmacology. 2008;55:826–34. [DOI] [PubMed]

65.

Chavant F, Deguil J, Pain S, Ingrand I, Milin S, Fauconneau B, et al. Imipramine, in part through tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibition, prevents cognitive decline and beta-amyloid accumulation in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2010;332:505–14. [DOI] [PubMed]

66.

Lee YH, Kim SH, Kim Y, Lim Y, Ha K, Shin SY. Inhibitory effect of the antidepressant imipramine on NF-κB-dependent CXCL1 expression in TNFα-exposed astrocytes. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;12:547–55. [DOI] [PubMed]

67.

Lee JH, Ko E, Kim YE, Min JY, Liu J, Kim Y, et al. Gene expression profile analysis of genes in rat hippocampus from antidepressant treated rats using DNA microarray. BMC Neurosci. 2010;11:152. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

68.

Tiwari V, Mishra A, Singh S, Mishra SK, Sahu KK, Parulet al. Protriptyline improves spatial memory and reduces oxidative damage by regulating NFκB-BDNF/CREB signaling axis in streptozotocin-induced rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. Brain Res. 2021;1754:147261. [DOI] [PubMed]

69.

Caruso G, Grasso M, Fidilio A, Torrisi SA, Musso N, Geraci F, et al. Antioxidant activity of fluoxetine and vortioxetine in a non-transgenic animal model of Alzheimer’s disease. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:809541. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

70.

Caraci F, Tascedda F, Merlo S, Benatti C, Spampinato SF, Munafò A, et al. Fluoxetine prevents Aβ_1-42-induced toxicity via a paracrine signaling mediated by transforming-growth-factor-β1. Front Pharmacol. 2016;7:389. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

71.

Park SH, Lee YS, Yang HJ, Song GJ. Fluoxetine potentiates phagocytosis and autophagy in microglia. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:770610. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

72.

Al-Amin MM, Uddin MMN, Rahman MM, Reza HM, Rana MS. Effect of diclofenac and antidepressants on the inflammatory response in astrocyte cell culture. Inflammopharmacol. 2013;21:421–5. [DOI] [PubMed]

73.

Gill JS, Jamwal S, Kumar P, Deshmukh R. Sertraline and venlafaxine improves motor performance and neurobehavioral deficit in quinolinic acid induced Huntington’s like symptoms in rats: possible neurotransmitters modulation. Pharmacol Rep. 2017;69:306–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

74.

Bielecka AM, Paul-Samojedny M, Obuchowicz E. Moclobemide exerts anti-inflammatory effect in lipopolysaccharide-activated primary mixed glial cell culture. Naunyn Schmeiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2010;382:409–17. [DOI] [PubMed]

75.

Park H, Han KM, Jeon H, Lee JS, Lee H, Jeon SG, et al. The MAO inhibitor tranylcypromine alters LPS- and Aβ-mediated neuroinflammatory responses in wild-type mice and a mouse model of AD. Cells. 2020;9:1982. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

76.

Janda E, Visalli V, Colica C, Aprigliano S, Musolino V, Vadalà N, et al. The protective effect of tianeptine on Gp120-induced apoptosis in astroglial cells: role of GS and NOS, and NF-κB suppression. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;164:1590–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

77.

Ersoy B, Herzog ML, Pan W, Schilling S, Endres M, Gottert R, et al. The atypical antidepressant tianeptine confers neuroprotection against oxygen-glucose deprivation. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2023. [DOI] [PubMed]

78.

Nemutlu Samur D, Akçay G, Yıldırım S, Özkan A, Çeker T, Derin N, et al. Vortioxetine ameliorates motor and cognitive impairments in the rotenone-induced Parkinson’s disease via targeting TLR-2 mediated neuroinflammation. Neuropharmacology. 2022;208:108977. [DOI] [PubMed]

79.

Chanmanee T, Wongpun J, Tocharus C, Govitrapong P, Tocharus J. The effects of agomelatine on endoplasmic reticulum stress related to mitochondrial dysfunction in hippocampus of aging rat model. Chem Biol Interact. 2022;351:109703. [DOI] [PubMed]

80.

Peng L, Li B, Du T, Kong EK, Hu X, Zhang S, et al. Astrocytic transactivation by α_2A-adrenergic and 5-HT_2B serotonergic signaling. Neurochem Int. 2010;57:421–31. [DOI] [PubMed]

81.

Sánchez C, Hyttel J. Comparison of the effects of antidepressants and their metabolites on reuptake of biogenic amines and on receptor binding. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 1999;19:467–89. [DOI] [PubMed]

82.

de Oliveira P, Cella C, Locker N, Ravindran KKG, Mendis A, Wafford K, et al. Improved sleep, memory, and cellular pathological features of tauopathy, including the NLRP3 inflammasome, after chronic administration of trazodone in rTg4510 mice. J Neurosci. 2022;42:3494–509. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

83.

Zheng YB, Shi L, Zhu XM, Bao YP, Bai LJ, Li JQ, et al. Anticholinergic drugs and the risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021;127:296–306. [DOI] [PubMed]

84.

Sinyor M, Cheung CP, Abraha HY, Lanctôt KL, Saleem M, Liu CS, et al. Antidepressant-placebo differences for specific adverse events in major depressive disorder: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2020;267:185–90. [DOI] [PubMed]

85.

Su Q, Li T, Liu GW, Zhang YL, Guo JH, Wang ZJ, et al. Agomelatine: a potential novel approach for the treatment of memory disorder in neurodegenerative disease. Neural Regen Res. 2023;18:727–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

86.

Reddy AP, Yin X, Sawant N, Reddy PH. Protective effects of antidepressant citalopram against abnormal APP processing and amyloid beta-induced mitochondrial dynamics, biogenesis, mitophagy and synaptic toxicities in Alzheimer’s disease. Hum Mol Genet. 2021;30:847–64. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

87.

Bartels C, Wagner M, Wolfsgruber S, Ehrenreich H, Schneider A; Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Impact of SSRI therapy on risk of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer’s dementia in individuals with previous depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2018;175:232–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

88.

Brodrick JE, Mathys ML. Antidepressant exposure and risk of dementia in older adults with major depressive disorder. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64:2517–21. [DOI] [PubMed]

89.

Goveas JS, Hogan PE, Kotchen JM, Smoller JW, Denburg NL, Manson JE, et al. Depressive symptoms, antidepressant use, and future cognitive health in postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study. Int Psychogeriatr. 2012;24:1252–64. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

90.

Lee CW, Lin CL, Sung FC, Liang JA, Kao CH. Antidepressant treatment and risk of dementia: a population-based, retrospective case-control study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77:117–22. [DOI] [PubMed]

91.

Jacob L, Bohlken J, Kostev K. Risk of dementia in German patients treated with antidepressants in general or psychiatric practices. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017;55:322–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

92.

Lee CW, Lin C, Lin P, Thielke S, Su K, Kao C. Antidepressants and risk of dementia in migraine patients: a population-based case-control study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2017;77:83–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

93.

Then CK, Chi NF, Chung KH, Kuo L, Liu KH, Hu CJ, et al. Risk analysis of use of different classes of antidepressants on subsequent dementia: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0175187. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

94.

Heath L, Gray SL, Boudreau DM, Thummel K, Edwards KL, Fullerton SM, et al. Cumulative antidepressant use and risk of dementia in a prospective cohort study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2018;66:1948–55. [DOI] [PubMed]

95.

Heser K, Luck T, Röhr S, Wiese B, Kaduszkiewicz H, Oey A, et al. Potentially inappropriate medication: association between the use of antidepressant drugs and the subsequent risk for dementia. J Affect Disord. 2018;226:28–35. [DOI] [PubMed]

96.

Brauer R, Lau WCY, Hayes JF, Man KKC, Osborn DPJ, Howard R, et al. Trazodone use and risk of dementia: a population-based cohort study. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002728. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

97.

Kodesh A, Sandin S, Reichenberg A, Rotstein A, Pedersen NL, Ericsson M, et al. Exposure to antidepressant medication and the risk of incident dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2019;27:1177–88. [DOI] [PubMed]

98.

Kostev K, Bohlken J, Jacob L. Analysis of the effects of selective serotonin (and noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors on the risk of dementia in patients with depression. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019;69:577–83. [DOI] [PubMed]

99.

Lin CE, Lee MS, Kao SY, Chung CH, Chen LF, Chou PH, et al. Association between concurrent antidepressant and hypnotic treatment and the risk of dementia: a nationwide cohort study. J Affect Disord. 2020;277:549–58. [DOI] [PubMed]

100.

Su JA, Chang CC, Yang YH, Chen KJ, Li YP, Lin CY. Risk of incident dementia in late-life depression treated with antidepressants: a nationwide population cohort study. J Psychopharmacol. 2020;34:1134–42. [DOI] [PubMed]

101.

Babulal GM, Zhu Y, Roe CM, Hudson DL, Williams MM, Murphy SA, et al. The complex relationship between depression and progression to incident cognitive impairment across race and ethnicity. Alzheimers Dementia. 2022;18:2593–602. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

102.

Tournier M, Pambrun E, Maumus-Robert S, Pariente A, Verdoux H. The risk of dementia in patients using psychotropic drugs: antidepressants, mood stabilizers or antipsychotics. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2022;145:56–66. [DOI] [PubMed]

103.

Yang L, Deng YT, Leng Y, Ou YN, Li YZ, Chen SD, et al. Depression, depression treatments, and risk of incident dementia: a prospective cohort study of 354,313 participants. Biol Psychiatry. 2023;93:802–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

104.

Moraros J, Nwankwo C, Patten SB, Mousseau DD. The association of antidepressant drug usage with cognitive impairment or dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depress Anxiety. 2017;34:217–26. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

105.

Wang YC, Tai PA, Poly TN, Islam MM, Yang HC, Wu CC, et al. Increased risk of dementia in patients with antidepressants: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Behav Neurol. 2018;2018:5315098. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

106.

Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT. Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. PLoS Med. 2008;5:e45. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

107.

Rabinowitz J, Werbeloff N, Mandel FS, Menard F, Marangell L, Kapur S. Initial depression severity and response to antidepressants v. placebo: patient-level data analysis from 34 randomised controlled trials. Br J Psychiatry. 2016;209:427–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

108.

Postuma RB, Gagnon JF, Tuineaig M, Bertrand JA, Latreille V, Desjardins C, et al. Antidepressants and REM sleep behavior disorder: isolated side effect or neurodegenerative signal? Sleep. 2013;36:1579–85. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

109.

Dudas R, Malouf R, McCleery J, Dening T. Antidepressants for treating depression in dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;8:CD003944. [DOI] [PubMed]

110.

Qin M, Wu J, Zhou Q, Liang Z, Su Y. Global cognitive effects of second-generation antidepressants in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Psychiatr Res. 2022;155:371–9. [DOI] [PubMed]

111.

Liew TM. Antidepressants, indications of prescribing, and dementia risk. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020;28:497–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

112.

Solomonov N, Alexopoulos GS. Do antidepressants increase the risk of dementia? Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2019;27:1189–91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

113.

Seemüller F, Meier S, Obermeier M, Musil R, Bauer M, Adli M, et al. Three-year long-term outcome of 458 naturalistically treated inpatients with major depressive episode: severe relapse rates and risk factors. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2014;264:567–75. [DOI] [PubMed]

114.

Kofod J, Elfving B, Nielsen EH, Mors O, Köhler-Forsberg O. Depression and inflammation: correlation between changes in inflammatory markers with antidepressant response and long-term prognosis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022;54:116–25. [DOI] [PubMed]

115.

Chauhan P, Nair A, Patidar A, Dandapat J, Sarkar A, Saha B. A primer on cytokines. Cytokine. 2021;145:155458. [DOI] [PubMed]

116.

Marie C, Pitton C, Fitting C, Cavaillon JM. Regulation by anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, TGFβ) of interleukin-8 production by LPS- and/or TNFα-activated human polymorphonuclear cells. Mediators Inflamm. 1996;5:334–40. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

117.

Zhang JM, An J. Cytokines, inflammation, and pain. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2007;45:27–37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

118.

Önal HT, Yetkin D, Ayaz F. Immunostimulatory activity of fluoxetine in macrophages via regulation of the PI3K and P38 signaling pathways. Immunol Res. 2023;71:413–21. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

119.

Fazzino F, Urbina M, Cedeño N, Lima L. Fluoxetine treatment to rats modifies serotonin transporter and cAMP in lymphocytes, CD4+ and CD8+ subpopulations and interleukins 2 and 4. Int Immunopharmacol. 2009;9:463–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

120.

Hernandez ME, Martinez-Fong D, Perez-Tapia M, Estrada-Garcia I, Estrada-Parra S, Pavón L. Evaluation of the effect of selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors on lymphocyte subsets in patients with a major depressive disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010;20:88–95. [DOI] [PubMed]

121.

Fazzino F, Obregón F, Morles M, Rojas A, Arocha L, Mata S, et al. Taurine transporter in lymphocytes of patients with major depression treated with venlafaxine plus psychotherapy. In: Azuma J, Schaffer SW, Ito T, editors. Taurine 7. New York (NY): Springer; 2009. pp. 217–24.

122.

Blackwell J, Alexakis C, Saxena S, Creese H, Bottle A, Petersen I, et al. Association between antidepressant medication use and steroid dependency in patients with ulcerative colitis: a population-based study. BMJ Open Gastroenterol. 2021;8:e000588. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

123.

Hatamnejad MR, Baradaran Ghavami S, Shirvani M, Asghari Ahmadabad M, Shahrokh S, Farmani M, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and inflammatory bowel disease; beneficial or malpractice? Front Immunol. 2022;13:980189. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

124.

Wang J, He W, Zhang J. A richer and more diverse future for microglia phenotypes. Heliyon. 2023;9:e14713. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

125.

He Y, Gao Y, Zhang Q, Zhou G, Cao F, Yao S. IL-4 switches microglia/macrophage M1/M2 polarization and alleviates neurological damage by modulating the JAK1/STAT6 pathway following ICH. Neuroscience. 2020;437:161–71. [DOI] [PubMed]

126.

Kim S, Son Y. Astrocytes stimulate microglial proliferation and M2 polarization in vitro through crosstalk between astrocytes and microglia. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:8800. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

127.

Janbek J, Laursen TM, Frimodt-Møller N, Magyari M, Haas JG, Lathe R, et al. Hospital-diagnosed infections, autoimmune diseases, and subsequent dementia incidence. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6:e2332635. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

128.

Sipilä PN, Heikkilä N, Lindbohm JV, Hakulinen C, Vahtera J, Elovainio M, et al. Hospital-treated infectious diseases and the risk of dementia: a large, multicohort, observational study with a replication cohort. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021;21:1557–67. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

129.

Hernandez-Ruiz V, Letenneur L, Fülöp T, Helmer C, Roubaud-Baudron C, Avila-Funes JA, et al. Infectious diseases and cognition: Do we have to worry? Neurol Sci. 2022;43:6215–24. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

130.

Bohn B, Lutsey PL, Misialek JR, Walker KA, Brown CH, Hughes TM, et al. Incidence of dementia following hospitalization with infection among adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study cohort. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6:e2250126. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

131.

Sealock JM, Chen G, Davis LK. Anti-inflammatory action of antidepressants: investigating the longitudinal effect of antidepressants on white blood cell count. Complex Psychiatry. 2023;9:1–10. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

132.

Johnson BL 3rd, Rice TC, Xia BT, Boone KI, Green EA, Gulbins E, et al. Amitriptyline usage exacerbates the immune suppression following burn injury. Shock. 2016;46:541–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

133.

Ronaldson A, Arias de la Torre J, Sima R, Ashworth M, Armstrong D, Bakolis I, et al. Prospective associations between depression and risk of hospitalization for infection: findings from the UK Biobank. Brain Behav Immun. 2022;102:292–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

134.

Gan T, Jackson NA, Castle JT, Davenport DL, Oyler DR, Ebbitt LM, et al. A retrospective review: patient-reported preoperative prescription opioid, sedative, or antidepressant use is associated with worse outcomes in colorectal surgery. Dis Colon Rectum. 2020;63:965–73. [DOI] [PubMed]

135.

Rogers MAM, Greene MT, Young VB, Saint S, Langa KM, Kao JY, et al. Depression, antidepressant medications, and risk of Clostridium difficile infection. BMC Med. 2013;11:121. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

136.

Siraj RA, Bolton CE, McKeever TM. Association between antidepressants with pneumonia and exacerbation in patients with COPD: a self-controlled case series (SCCS). Thorax. 2023;79:50–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

137.

Davydow DS, Ribe AR, Pedersen HS, Vestergaard M, Fenger-Gron M. The association of unipolar depression with thirty-day mortality after hospitalization for infection: a population-based cohort study in Denmark. J Psychosom Res. 2016;89:32–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

138.

Köck R, Werner P, Friedrich AW, Fegeler C, Becker K; Prevalence of Multiresistant Microorganisms (PMM) Study Group. Persistence of nasal colonization with human pathogenic bacteria and associated antimicrobial resistance in the German general population. New Microbes New Infect. 2015;9:24–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

139.

Ou J, Elizadle P, Guo H, Qin H, Tobe BTD, Choy JS. TCA and SSRI antidepressants exert selection pressure for efflux-dependent antibiotic resistance mechanisms in Escherichia coli. mBio. 2022;13:e0219122. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

140.

Firmino F, Ferreira SADC, Franck EM, de Queiroz WMS, Castro DV, Nogueira PC, et al. Malignant wounds in hospitalized oncology patients: prevalence, characteristics, and associated factors. Plast Surg Nurs. 2020;40:138–44. [DOI] [PubMed]

141.

Fried S, Wemelle E, Cani PD, Knauf C. Interactions between the microbiota and enteric nervous system during gut-brain disorders. Neuropharmacology. 2021;197:108721. [DOI] [PubMed]

142.

Giridharan VV, Barichello De Quevedo CE, Petronilho F. Microbiota-gut-brain axis in the Alzheimer’s disease pathology - an overview. Neurosci Res. 2022;181:17–21. [DOI] [PubMed]

143.

Sochocka M, Donskow-Łysoniewska K, Diniz BS, Kurpas D, Brzozowska E, Leszek J. The gut microbiome alterations and inflammation-driven pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease—a critical review. Mol Neurobiol. 2019;56:1841–51. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

144.

Cheung SG, Goldenthal AR, Uhlemann AC, Mann JJ, Miller JM, Sublette ME. Systematic review of gut microbiota and major depression. Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

145.

Knudsen JK, Bundgaard-Nielsen C, Hjerrild S, Nielsen RE, Leutscher P, Sørensen S. Gut microbiota variations in patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder—a systematic review. Brain Behav. 2021;11:e02177. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

146.

Nikolova VL, Cleare AJ, Young AH, Stone JM. Acceptability, tolerability, and estimates of putative treatment effects of probiotics as adjunctive treatment in patients with depression: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2023;80:842–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

147.

Schneider E, Doll JPK, Schweinfurth N, Kettelhack C, Schaub AC, Yamanbaeva G, et al. Effect of short-term, high-dose probiotic supplementation on cognition, related brain functions and BDNF in patients with depression: a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2023;48:E23–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

148.

Tian P, Chen Y, Zhu H, Wang L, Qian X, Zou R, et al. Bifidobacterium breve CCFM1025 attenuates major depression disorder via regulating gut microbiome and tryptophan metabolism: a randomized clinical trial. Brain Behav Immun. 2022;100:233–41. [DOI] [PubMed]

149.

Reiter A, Bengesser SA, Hauschild AC, Birkl-Töglhofer AM, Fellendorf FT, Platzer M, et al. Interleukin-6 gene expression changes after a 4-week intake of a multispecies probiotic in major depressive disorder-preliminary results of the PROVIT study. Nutrients. 2020;12:2575. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

150.

Ross K. Psychobiotics: Are they the future intervention for managing depression and anxiety? A literature review. Explore (NY). 2023;19:669–80. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

151.

Mitrea L, Nemeş SA, Szabo K, Teleky BE, Vodnar DC. Guts imbalance imbalances the brain: a review of gut microbiota association with neurological and psychiatric disorders. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:813204. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

152.

Dhyani P, Goyal C, Dhull SB, Chauhan AK, Singh Saharan B, Harshitaet al. Psychobiotics for mitigation of neuro-degenerative diseases: recent advancements. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2023:2300461. [DOI] [PubMed]

153.

Weber A, Xie Y, Challis JK, DeBofsky A, Ankley PJ, Hecker M, et al. Effects of aqueous fluoxetine exposure on gut microbiome of adult Pimephales promelas. Sci Tot Environ. 2022;813:152422. [DOI] [PubMed]

154.

Duan J, Huang Y, Tan X, Chai T, Wu J, Zhang H, et al. Characterization of gut microbiome in mice model of depression with divergent response to escitalopram treatment. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11:303. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

155.

Gao M, Tu H, Liu P, Zhang Y, Zhang R, Jing L, et al. Association analysis of gut microbiota and efficacy of SSRIs antidepressants in patients with major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2023;330:40–7. [DOI] [PubMed]

156.

Wang Y, Zhou J, Ye J, Sun Z, He Y, Zhao Y, et al. Multi-omics reveal microbial determinants impacting the treatment outcome of antidepressants in major depressive disorder. Microbiome. 2023;11:195. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

157.

Bharwani A, Bala A, Surette M, Bienenstock J, Vigod SN, Taylor VH. Gut microbiome patterns associated with treatment response in patients with major depressive disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 2020;65:278–80. French. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

158.

Shen Y, Yang X, Li G, Gao J, Liang Y. The change of gut microbiota in MDD patients under SSRIs treatment. Sci Rep. 2021;11:14918. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

159.

Macedo D, Filho AJMC, Soares de Sousa CN, Quevedo J, Barichello T, Júnior HVN, et al. Antidepressants, antimicrobials, or both? Gut microbiota dysbiosis in depression and possible implications of the antimicrobial effects of antidepressant drugs for antidepressant effectiveness. J Affect Disord. 2017;208:22–32. [DOI] [PubMed]

160.

McGovern AS, Hamlin AS, Winter G. A review of the antimicrobial side of antidepressants and its putative implications on the gut microbiome. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2019;53:1151–66. [DOI] [PubMed]

161.

Ait Chait Y, Mottawea W, Tompkins TA, Hammami R. Unravelling the antimicrobial action of antidepressants on gut commensal microbes. Sci Rep. 2020;10:17878. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

162.

Brown LC, Bobo WV, Gall CA, Müller DJ, Bousman CA. Pharmacomicrobiomics of antidepressants in depression: a systematic review. J Pers Med. 2023;13:1086. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

163.

Lyte M, Daniels KM, Schmitz-Esser S. Fluoxetine-induced alteration of murine gut microbial community structure: evidence for a microbial endocrinology-based mechanism of action responsible for fluoxetine-induced side effects. PeerJ. 2019;7:e6199. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

164.

Rukavishnikov G, Leonova L, Kasyanov E, Leonov V, Neznanov N, Mazo G. Antimicrobial activity of antidepressants on normal gut microbiota: results of the in vitro study. Front Behav Neurosci. 2023;17:1132127. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

165.

Gassen NC, Chrousos GP, Binder EB, Zannas AS. Life stress, glucocorticoid signaling, and the aging epigenome: implications for aging-related diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;74:356–65. [DOI] [PubMed]

166.

Zannas AS. Gene-environment interactions in late life: linking psychosocial stress with brain aging. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16:327–33. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

167.

Gilsanz P, Quesenberry CP Jr, Mayeda ER, Glymour MM, Farias ST, Whitmer RA. Stressors in midlife and risk of dementia: the role of race and education. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2019;33:200–5. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

168.

Umberson D, Donnelly R, Xu M, Farina M, Garcia MA. Death of a child prior to midlife, dementia risk, and racial disparities. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2020;75:1983–95. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

169.

Song H, Sieurin J, Wirdefeldt K, Pedersen NL, Almqvist C, Larsson H, et al. Association of stress-related disorders with subsequent neurodegenerative diseases. JAMA Neurol. 2020;77:700–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

170.

Canet G, Hernandez G, Zussy C, Chevallier N, Desrumaux C, Givalois L. Is AD a stress-related disorder? Focus on the HPA axis and its promising therapeutic targets. Front Aging Neurosci. 2019;11:269. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

171.

Danese A. Genetic opportunities for psychiatric epidemiology: on life stress and depression. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc. 2008;17:201–10. [DOI] [PubMed]

172.

Hosang GM, Shiles C, Tansey KE, McGuffin P, Uher R. Interaction between stress and the BDNFVal66Met polymorphism in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2014;12:7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

173.

Hosang GM, Korszun A, Jones L, Jones I, Gray JM, Gunasinghe CM, et al. Adverse life event reporting and worst illness episodes in unipolar and bipolar affective disorders: measuring environmental risk for genetic research. Psychol Med. 2010;40:1829–37. [DOI] [PubMed]

174.

Herbison CE, Allen K, Robinson M, Newnham J, Pennell C. The impact of life stress on adult depression and anxiety is dependent on gender and timing of exposure. Dev Psychopathol. 2017;29:1443–54. [DOI] [PubMed]

175.

Nelson WH, Orr WW Jr, Stevenson JM, Shane SR. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and tricyclic response in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982;39:1033–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

176.

Young EA, Altemus M, Lopez JF, Kocsis JH, Schatzberg AF, DeBattista C, et al. HPA axis activation in major depression and response to fluoxetine: a pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29:1198–204. [DOI] [PubMed]

177.

Araya AV, Rojas P, Fritsch R, Rojas R, Herrera L, Rojas G, et al. Early response to venlafaxine antidepressant correlates with lower ACTH levels prior to pharmacological treatment. Endocrine. 2006;30:289–98. [DOI] [PubMed]

178.

Schüle C. Neuroendocrinological mechanisms of actions of antidepressant drugs. J Neuroendocrinol. 2007;19:213–26. [DOI] [PubMed]

179.

Michelson D, Galliven E, Hill L, Demitrack M, Chrousos G, Gold P. Chronic imipramine is associated with diminished hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responsivity in healthy humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:2601–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

180.

Piwowarska J, Dryll K, Szelenberger W, Pachecka J. Cortisol level in men with major depressive disorder treated with fluoxetine or imipramine. Acta Pol Pharm. 2008;65:159–64. [PubMed]

181.

Piwowarska J, Chimiak A, Matsumoto H, Dziklińska A, Radziwoń-Zaleska M, Szelenberger W, et al. Serum cortisol concentration in patients with major depression after treatment with fluoxetine. Psychiatry Res. 2012;198:407–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

182.

Inder WJ, Prickett TC, Mulder RT, Donald RA, Joyce PR. Reduction in basal afternoon plasma ACTH during early treatment of depression with fluoxetine. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001;156:73–8. [DOI] [PubMed]

183.

Rota E, Broda R, Cangemi L, Migliaretti G, Paccotti P, Rosso C, et al. Neuroendocrine (HPA axis) and clinical correlates during fluvoxamine and amitriptyline treatment. Psychiatry Res. 2005;133:281–4. [DOI] [PubMed]

184.

Ronaldson A, Carvalho LA, Kostich K, Lazzarino AI, Urbanova L, Steptoe A. The effects of six-day SSRI administration on diurnal cortisol secretion in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2018;235:3415–22. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

185.

Sarubin N, Nothdurfter C, Schmotz C, Wimmer AM, Trummer J, Lieb M, et al. Impact on cortisol and antidepressant efficacy of quetiapine and escitalopram in depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014;39:141–51. [DOI] [PubMed]

186.

Li SX, Liu LJ, Xu LZ, Gao L, Wang XF, Zhang JT, et al. Diurnal alterations in circadian genes and peptides in major depressive disorder before and after escitalopram treatment. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2013;38:2789–99. [DOI] [PubMed]

187.

Harmer CJ, Bhagwagar Z, Shelley N, Cowen PJ. Contrasting effects of citalopram and reboxetine on waking salivary cortisol. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2003;167:112–4. [DOI] [PubMed]

188.

Nikisch G, Mathé AA, Czernik A, Thiele J, Bohner J, Eap CB, et al. Long-term citalopram administration reduces responsiveness of HPA axis in patients with major depression: relationship with S-citalopram concentrations in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and clinical response. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2005;181:751–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

189.

Horstmann S, Dose T, Lucae S, Kloiber S, Menke A, Hennings J, et al. Suppressive effect of mirtazapine on the HPA system in acutely depressed women seems to be transient and not related to antidepressant action. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2009;34:238–48. [DOI] [PubMed]

190.

Scharnholz B, Weber-Hamann B, Lederbogen F, Schilling C, Gilles M, Onken V, et al. Antidepressant treatment with mirtazapine, but not venlafaxine, lowers cortisol concentrations in saliva: a randomized open trial. Psychiatry Res. 2010;177:109–13. [DOI] [PubMed]

191.

Juruena MF, Cleare AJ, Papadopoulos AS, Poon L, Lightman S, Pariante CM. The prednisolone suppression test in depression: dose-response and changes with antidepressant treatment. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2010;35:1486–91. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

192.

Huibers MJH, Cohen ZD, Lemmens LHJM, Arntz A, Peeters FPML, Cuijpers P, et al. Predicting optimal outcomes in cognitive therapy or interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed individuals using the Personalized Advantage Index approach. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0140771. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

193.

Miloseva L, Vukosavljevic-Gvozden T, Richter K, Milosev V, Niklewski G. Perceived social support as a moderator between negative life events and depression in adolescence: implications for prediction and targeted prevention. EPMA J. 2017;8:237–45. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

194.

Ungvari Z, Tarantini S, Yabluchanskiy A, Csiszar A. Potential adverse cardiovascular effects of treatment with fluoxetine and other selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in patients with geriatric depression: implications for atherogenesis and cerebromicrovascular dysregulation. Front Genet. 2019;10:898. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

195.

Mayers AG, Baldwin DS. Antidepressants and their effect on sleep. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2005;20:533–59. [DOI] [PubMed]

196.

Wu Z, Wu J, Xie C, Wang L, Li H, Zhang M, et al. Risk factors for rapid eye-movement sleep-related behavioral disorders (RBDs): a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2022;79:118–27. [DOI] [PubMed]

197.

Carpi M, Fernandes M, Mercuri NB, Liguori C. Sleep biomarkers for predicting cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review of longitudinal studies. J Alzheimers Dis. 2024;97:121–43. [DOI] [PubMed]

198.

Rao RV, Subramaniam KG, Gregory J, Bredesen AL, Coward C, Okada S, et al. Rationale for a multi-factorial approach for the reversal of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease and MCI: a review. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:1659. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

199.

Lee Y, Rosenblat JD, Lee J, Carmona NE, Subramaniapillai M, Shekotikhina M, et al. Efficacy of antidepressants on measures of workplace functioning in major depressive disorder: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2018;227:406–15. [DOI] [PubMed]

200.

Wiesinger T, Kremer S, Bschor T, Baethge C. Antidepressants and quality of life in patients with major depressive disorder – systematic review and meta-analysis of double-blind, placebo-controlled RCTs. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2023;147:545–60. [DOI] [PubMed]

201.

Wilkowska A, Szałach ŁP, Cubała WJ. Gut microbiota in depression: a focus on ketamine. Front Behav Neurosci. 2021;15:693362. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

202.

Kelly JR, Clarke G, Harkin A, Corr SC, Galvin S, Pradeep V, et al. Seeking the psilocybiome: psychedelics meet the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2023;23:100349. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

203.

Kopra E, Mondelli V, Pariante C, Nikkheslat N. Ketamine’s effect on inflammation and kynurenine pathway in depression: a systematic review. J Psychopharmacol. 2021;35:934–45. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

204.

Anderson RC. Can probiotics mitigate age-related neuroinflammation leading to improved cognitive outcomes? Front Nutr. 2022;9:1012076. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

205.

Garcia-Romeu A, Darcy S, Jackson H, White T, Rosenberg P. Psychedelics as novel therapeutics in Alzheimer’s disease: rationale and potential mechanisms. In: Barrett FS, Preller KH, editors. Disruptive psychopharmacology. Cham: Springer; 2021. pp. 287-317.

206.

Mateo D, Marquès M, Domingo JL, Torrente M. Influence of gut microbiota on the development of most prevalent neurodegenerative dementias and the potential effect of probiotics in elderly: a scoping review. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2023:e32959. [DOI] [PubMed]

207.

Yang TT, Hsiao FH, Wang KC, Ng SM, Ho RTH, Chan CLW, et al. The effect of psychotherapy added to pharmacotherapy on cortisol responses in outpatients with major depressive disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;197:401–6. [DOI] [PubMed]

208.

Hsiao FH, Jow GM, Lai YM, Chen YT, Wang KC, Ng SM, et al. The long-term effects of psychotherapy added to pharmacotherapy on morning to evening diurnal cortisol patterns in outpatients with major depression. Psychother Psychosom. 2011;80:166–72. [DOI] [PubMed]

209.

Luo J, Beam CR, Gatz M. Is stress an overlooked risk factor for dementia? A systematic review from a lifespan developmental perspective. Prev Sci. 2023;24:936–49. [DOI] [PubMed]

210.

Guarnera J, Yuen E, Macpherson H. The impact of loneliness and social isolation on cognitive aging: a narrative review. J Alzheimers Dis Rep. 2023;7:699–714. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

211.

Minuti A, Brufani F, Menculini G, Moretti P, Tortorella A. The complex relationship between gut microbiota dysregulation and mood disorders: a narrative review. Curr Res Neurobiol. 2022;3:100044. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

212.

Fischer S, Macare C, Cleare AJ. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning as predictor of antidepressant response-Meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;83:200–11. [DOI] [PubMed]

213.

Minichino A, Preston T, Fanshawe JB, Fusar-Poli P, McGuire P, Burnet PWJ, et al. Psycho-pharmacomicrobiomics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry. 2023:S0006-3223(23)01486-5. [DOI] [PubMed]

214.

Almeida IB, Gomes IA, Shanmugam S, de Moura TR, Magalhães LS, de Aquino LAG, et al. Inflammatory modulation of fluoxetine use in patients with depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cytokine. 2020;131:155100. [DOI] [PubMed]

215.

Réus GZ, Manosso LM, Quevedo J, Carvalho AF. Major depressive disorder as a neuro-immune disorder: origin, mechanisms, and therapeutic opportunities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2023;155:105425. [DOI] [PubMed]

216.

Barnes J, Mondelli V, Pariante CM. Genetic contributions of inflammation to depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2017;42:81–98. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

217.

Cacabelos R. Pharmacogenomics of cognitive dysfunction and neuropsychiatric disorders in dementia. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:3059. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]

218.

Luo D, Long Y, Chen GJ. Cyclooxygenase-2 gene polymorphisms and risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2015;359:100–5. [DOI] [PubMed]

219.

Di Bona D, Plaia A, Vasto S, Cavallone L, Lescai F, Franceschi C, et al. Association between the interleukin-1β polymorphisms and Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Res Rev. 2008;59:155–63. [DOI] [PubMed]

220.

Köhler-Forsberg O, Lydholm CN, Hjorthøj C, Nordentoft M, Mors O, Benros ME. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory treatment on major depressive disorder or depressive symptoms: meta-analysis of clinical trials. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2019;139:404–19. [DOI] [PubMed]

221.

Köhler O, Benros ME, Nordentoft M, Farkouh ME, Iyengar RL, Mors O, et al. Effect of anti-inflammatory treatment on depression, depressive symptoms, and adverse effects: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71:1381–91. [DOI] [PubMed]

222.

Rios AC, Maurya PK, Pedrini M, Zeni-Graiff M, Asevedo E, Mansur RB, et al. Microbiota abnormalities and the therapeutic potential of probiotics in the treatment of mood disorders. Rev Neurosci. 2017;28:739–49. [DOI] [PubMed]