Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy

Table 1. Overview of knockout or knock-in mouse models of TGF-β-associated protein

Knockout mouse model	Phenotype	Reference
Smad5	Embryonic fatal; faulty vascular development, ventral closure, cardiac development, and craniofacial development; aberrant heart looping and embryonic turning	[111, 112]
Smad3	A reduced size compared to littermate controls	[15, 113]
Smad7	Body sizes were smaller than wild-type mice	[114]
Activin βA	Newborn fatality; cranial defects (cleft palate and loss of whiskers, upper incisors, lower incisors, and lower molars)	[115, 116]
Activin βB	Large litters but delayed parturition; breastfeeding issues; birth abnormalities in eyelid closure	[117]
Activin βC	No noticeable abnormalities; viable	[118]
Activin βE	No noticeable abnormalities; viable	[118]
Activin βB knockin to the activin βA locus	Reversal of activin A-deficient neonatal mortality. Defects in the development of the hair, gonads, external genitalia, and somatic growth	[119]
Growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF-9)	Viable; female infertility; one-layer primary follicle stage halt of folliculogenesis	[120, 121]
Inhibin α	Female infertility; secondary male infertility; granulosa/Sertoli cell and adrenal tumors; cachexia-like condition	[122]
Activin receptor type II	Infertility in females is caused by a folliculogenesis abnormality; delayed fertility in males; undersized gonads; 25% of mice die at birth owing to mandible deformities	[116]
FKBP12	Due to cardiomyopathy and neural tube abnormalities, the majority of mice perish between embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5) and delivery	[123]
Follistatin	Neonatal fatality; craniofacial abnormalities, development retardation, and skin abnormalities	[111]

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Declarations

Author contributions

MKKC and ELYC equally contributed to: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Visualization. ZZJ, ASWC: Investigation, Data curation, Writing—review & editing. CL, KTL, KFT: Conceptualization, Methodology. PMKT: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing, Visualization.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

This study was supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong [RGC 14106518, 14111019, 14111720] RGC Postdoctoral Fellowship Scheme [PDFS2122-4S06] Health and Medical Research Fund [10210726] The Chinese University of Hong Kong’s Faculty Innovation Award [4620528], Direct Grant for Research [4054510, 4054668], Postdoctoral Fellowship Scheme [NL/LT/PDFS2022/0360/22lt], CU Medicine Passion for Perfection Scheme [PFP202210-004] and Global Physician-Leadership Stream programme. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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