From:  A systematic review on the role of IoT and digital transformation in routine urine screening

 Comparative summary of IoT-enabled urine screening device categories.

Device categoryKey biomarkersReported sensitivity (%)Reported specificity (%)Primary connectivityComputational architectureIdeal for
Smartphone-based strip readersProtein, glucose, pH, ketones, etc.78–9572–90BLE, Wi-FiCloud-centric ML inferenceHome, community screening
Wearable urine-adjacent sensorsHydration markers, electrolytes80–9275–88BLE, LPWANEdge preprocessing + cloud analyticsLong-term monitoring
Microfluidic lab-on-chip platformsCreatinine, cells, proteins90–10085–98Wi-Fi, USBEdge-assisted inferencePOC and clinics
Acoustofluidic microscopic systemsCells, casts, crystals92–10088–98Wi-FiHybrid edge–cloudAdvanced POC
Smart toiletsMulti-analyte longitudinal profiles85–9880–95Wi-Fi, 5GEdge + cloud + HDT integrationHome-based continuous monitoring

BLE: Bluetooth Low Energy; POC: point of care; LPWAN: Low-Power Wide-Area Network.