Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy

Table 3. Comparison of three-dimensional tumor modeling platforms in bone sarcoma precision medicine.

Model type	Biological fidelity	Main precision application	Key strength	Main limitation
Spheroids	Moderate (hypoxia and diffusion gradients)	Rapid drug screening	Simple and scalable	Limited matrix and niche realism
Scaffold-based systems	High (bone-mimetic stiffness and structure)	Local therapy + regenerative integration	Microenvironment realism	Manufacturing and clinical translation challenges
PDOs	High (tumor-intrinsic heterogeneity preserved)	Patient-specific drug response testing	Functional therapeutic prediction	Limited immune/stromal representation
PDX/PDOX models	Very high (in vivo architecture)	Regimen validation and resistance modeling	Whole-tumor fidelity	Cost, time, murine stroma
Biofabricated/Chip systems	Emerging high	Spatial and kinetic drug modeling	Architectural precision	Experimental stage

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PDOs: patient-derived organoids; PDX: patient-derived xenograft.

Declarations

Author contributions

SY: Investigation, Writing—original draft. PT: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing, Validation, Supervision. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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