Exploration of Targeted Anti-tumor Therapy

Table 1. Overview of cancer types and experimental models in AgNPs-based anticancer studies.

Plant source	Characterization	In vitro model	Mechanism	References
Pinus roxburghii	UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD, EDX, SAED, FESEM, and HRTEM	Lung adenocarcinomas (A549), prostatic small cell carcinomas (PC-3)	Apoptosis via mitochondrial depolarization, DNA damage, ROS, cell cycle arrest, and caspase-3 activation	[172]
Phyllanthus emblica	UV-Vis, TEM, FTIR, SEM-EDX, XRD, DLS-Zeta potential, TGA, and HRTEM	Lung cancer cell line (A549)	Elevated ROS levels, enhanced DNA damage, and cell death	[173]
Cynara scolymus (Artichoke)	UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, DLS, and EDX	Breast cancer cells (MCF-7)	Reduce cell migration, expression of Bax, and suppression of Bcl-2	[174]
Moringa oleifera	XRD, FTIR, HRTEM, EDX, and PL	In-vitro cytotoxicity and cell viability of human cancer cell HT-29	Induce apoptosis	[175]
Tamarindus indica	UV-Vis, FTIR, EDS, SEM, and TEM	MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line	Induce apoptosis	[176]
Achillea biebersteinii	UV-Vis, FTIR, TEM, DLS, and EDX	MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line	Triggered apoptosis through caspase activation and modulation of Bax and Bcl-2 expression	[177]
Punica granatum	UV-Vis, FTIR, DLS, EDX, SEM, and XRD	Human cervical cancer cells (HeLa)	Reduce cell viability	[178]
Gloriosa superba	UV-Vis, HRTEM, EDX, DLS, and XRD	MCF-7 cell line	High cytotoxicity due to interactions with cellular proteins and DNA, leading to cell death	[179]
Teucrium polium	UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, and XRD	MNK45 human gastric cancer cell line	Cytotoxic activity induces apoptosis	[180]
Melia dubia	UV-Vis, XRD, EDS, and SEM	Human breast cancer (KB) cell line	Show activity against the KB cell line	[181]
Ulva lactuca	UV-Vis, FTIR, TEM, and EDX	Human colon cancer HCT-116 cells	Higher levels of P53, Bax, and P21, along with lower Bcl-2, point to cell death driven by p53-related apoptosis	[182]
Cucumis prophetarum	UV-Vis, FTIR, DLS, XRD, SEM, and EDX	A549, MDA-MB-231, hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2), and MCF-7 cell line	Antiproliferative potential against selected cancer cell lines	[183]
Rosa damascena	UV-Vis, FTIR, DLS, SEM, HRTEM, XRD, and EDX	Human lung adenocarcinoma (A549)	Inducing apoptosis, generating ROS, and disrupting mitochondrial membrane potential lead to cell death	[184]
Gossypium hirsutum	UV-Vis, FTIR, LS, SEM, TEM, and XRD	Human lung cancer cells (A549)	Activate apoptosis in cancer cells by mitochondria-mediated pathways	[185]
Syzygium aromaticum	UV-Vis, HRTEM, and EDX	MCF-7 breast and A549 lung cell lines	Induced apoptosis via oxidative stress mechanisms	[186]
Podophyllum hexandrum	TEM, XRD, and FTIR	Human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa)	Decrease cell proliferation, increase intracellular ROS, DNA damage, and apoptosis	[187]
Heliotropium indicum	SEM, EDX	HeLa cervical cancer cell line	Inhibits cell growth in a dose and time-dependent manner	[188]
Azadirachta indica	FTIR, TEM, and DLS	MCF-7 and HeLa cell lines; in vivo model (Balb/C mice)	Alter pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and pro-apoptotic protein expressions	[189]
Gum arabic	UV-Vis, TEM	Oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma (CAL-127 cells)	Inhibits hypoxia through its suppressive effect on the HIF-1α protein, and its regulators miR-210 and miR-21	[190]
Alternanthera sessilis	UV-Vis, EDX, SAED, FTIR, HRTEM, and AFM	Cervical cancer cell line (HeLa)	Induce apoptosis	[191]

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AgNPs: silver nanoparticles; UV-Vis: UV-visible spectroscopy; FTIR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; XRD: X-ray diffraction; EDX: energy dispersive X-ray; SAED: selected area electron diffraction; FESEM: field emission scanning electron microscopy; HRTEM: high-resolution transmission electron microscopy; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; TGA: thermogravimetric analysis; SEM: scanning electron microscopy; DLS: dynamic light scattering; PL: photoluminescence; EDS: energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; LS: light scattering; AFM: atomic force microscope; ROS: reactive oxygen species; HIF-1α: hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha.

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of their collaborators and co-workers mentioned in the cited references. MSA and SM are thankful to the SGT School of Pharmacy, SGT University, for their support. KQ to Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, and to PK to Dhanrua School of Nursing & Paramedics, Dhanrua, Patna, and all are thankful for the support. All authors also very thankful to Arezah Sabir for her valuable support in editing the article.

Author contributions

PK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—original draft. KQ: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. RK: Software, Data curation, Visualization. SM: Formal analysis, Data curation, Resources. AW: Data curation, Resources, Writing—review & editing. KJ: Data curation, Visualization. KSV: Visualization, Writing—review & editing. MSA: Supervision, Writing—review & editing, Visualization, Resources, Investigation, Validation. All authors read and approved the submitted version.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

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Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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