RP: Conceptualization, Investigation, Data curation, Writing—original draft. VA: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing—review & editing, Supervision. Both authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated/analysed through experimentation and interpreted is included in the research article.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Varricchio CG. A cancer source book for nurses. 8th ed. Jones and Bartlett Publishers; 2004. p. 229.
Cooper GM. The Development and Causes of Cancer.In: The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd edition. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000.
Siegel RL, Miller KD, Wagle NS, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2023.CA Cancer J Clin. 2023;73:17–48. [DOI] [PubMed]
Bray F, Laversanne M, Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Soerjomataram I, et al. Global cancer statistics 2022: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries.CA Cancer J Clin. 2024;74:229–63. [DOI] [PubMed]
Chehelgerdi M, Chehelgerdi M, Allela OQB, Pecho RDC, Jayasankar N, Rao DP, et al. Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation.Mol Cancer. 2023;22:169. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Amjad MT, Chidharla A, Kasi A. Cancer Chemotherapy.In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025. [PubMed]
Housman G, Byler S, Heerboth S, Lapinska K, Longacre M, Snyder N, et al. Drug Resistance in Cancer: An Overview.Cancers (Basel). 2014;6:1769–92. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sathishkumar K, Chaturvedi M, Das P, Stephen S, Mathur P. Cancer incidence estimates for 2022 & projection for 2025: Result from National Cancer Registry Programme, India.Indian J Med Res. 2022;156:598–607. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Fuloria S, Mehta J, Chandel A, Sekar M, Rani NNIM, Begum MY, et al. A Comprehensive Review on the Therapeutic Potential of Curcuma longa Linn. in Relation to its Major Active Constituent Curcumin.Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:820806. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ciuca MD, Racovita RC. Curcumin: Overview of Extraction Methods, Health Benefits, and Encapsulation and Delivery Using Microemulsions and Nanoemulsions.Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:8874. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Akarchariya N, Sirilun S, Julsrigival J, Chansakaowa S. Chemical profiling and antimicrobial activity of essential oil from Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb., Curcuma glans K. Larsen & J. Mood and Curcuma cf. xanthorrhiza Roxb. collected in Thailand.Asian Pacific J Trop Biomed. 2017;7:881–5. [DOI]
Alolga RN, Wang F, Zhang X, Li J, Tran LP, Yin X. Bioactive Compounds from the Zingiberaceae Family with Known Antioxidant Activities for Possible Therapeutic Uses.Antioxidants (Basel). 2022;11:1281. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Itokawa H, Shi Q, Akiyama T, Morris-Natschke SL, Lee KH. Recent advances in the investigation of curcuminoids.Chin Med. 2008;3:11. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Barua S, Mitragotri S. Challenges associated with Penetration of Nanoparticles across Cell and Tissue Barriers: A Review of Current Status and Future Prospects.Nano Today. 2014;9:223–43. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Prasad S, Aggarwal BB. Turmeric, the Golden Spice: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Medicine. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011. [PubMed]
Urošević M, Nikolić L, Gajić I, Nikolić V, Dinić A, Miljković V. Curcumin: Biological Activities and Modern Pharmaceutical Forms.Antibiotics (Basel). 2022;11:135. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Tammina SK, Mandal BK, Ranjan S, Dasgupta N. Cytotoxicity study of Piper nigrum seed mediated synthesized SnO2 nanoparticles towards colorectal (HCT116) and lung cancer (A549) cell lines.J Photochem Photobiol B. 2017;166:158–68. [DOI] [PubMed]
Stojanović-Radić Z, Pejčić M, Dimitrijević M, Aleksić A, V. Anil Kumar N, Salehi B, et al. Piperine-A Major Principle of Black Pepper: A Review of Its Bioactivity and Studies.Appl Sci. 2019;9:4270. [DOI]
Wiraswati HL, Ma’ruf IF, Sharifi-Rad J, Calina D. Piperine: an emerging biofactor with anticancer efficacy and therapeutic potential.Biofactors. 2025;51:e2134. [DOI] [PubMed]
Derosa G, Maffioli P, Sahebkar A. Piperine and Its Role in Chronic Diseases.Adv Exp Med Biol. 2016;928:173–84. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zaini E, Riska D, Oktavia MD, Ismed F, Fitriani L. Improving Dissolution Rate of Piperine by Multicomponent Crystal Formation with Saccharin.Research J Pharm Tech. 2020;13:1928. [DOI]
Nouri-Vaskeh M, Hashemi P, Hataminia N, Yazdani Y, Nasirian M, Alizadeh L. The impact of piperine on the metabolic conditions of patients with NAFLD and early cirrhosis: a randomized double-blind controlled trial.Sci Rep. 2024;14:1053. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Panahi Y, Hosseini MS, Khalili N, Naimi E, Majeed M, Sahebkar A. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of curcuminoid-piperine combination in subjects with metabolic syndrome: A randomized controlled trial and an updated meta-analysis.Clin Nutr. 2015;34:1101–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Yallapu MM, Othman SF, Curtis ET, Bauer NA, Chauhan N, Kumar D, et al. Curcumin-loaded magnetic nanoparticles for breast cancer therapeutics and imaging applications.Int J Nanomedicine. 2012;7:1761–79. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Baspinar Y, Üstündas M, Bayraktar O, Sezgin C. Curcumin and piperine loaded zein-chitosan nanoparticles: Development and in-vitro characterisation.Saudi Pharm J. 2018;26:323–34. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Sharma A, Singh AP, Harikumar SL. Development and optimization of nanoemulsion based gel for enhanced transdermal delivery of nitrendipine using box-behnken statistical design.Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2020;46:329–42. [DOI] [PubMed]
Rezaeidian J, Naseh V, Entezari M, Ziyadi H, Hashemi M. Curcumin- and Piperine-Loaded Fe3o4@Sio2 Magnetic Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, and Comparison of the Effects on Mcf-7 Breast Cancer Cell Line.SSRN [Preprint]. 2023 [cited 2025 Jul 15]. Available from: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4329803
Javed B, Zhao X, Cui D, Curtin J, Tian F. Enhanced Anticancer Response of Curcumin- and Piperine-Loaded Lignin-g-p (NIPAM-co-DMAEMA) Gold Nanogels against U-251 MG Glioblastoma Multiforme.Biomedicines. 2021;9:1516. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Li M, Raheem MA, Han C, Yu F, Dai Y, Imran M, et al. The fowl adenovirus serotype 4 (FAdV-4) induce cellular pathway in chickens to produce interferon and antigen-presented molecules (MHCI/II).Poult Sci. 2021;100:101406. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bhirud D, Bhattacharya S, Raval H, Sangave PC, Gupta GL, Paraskar G, et al. Chitosan nanoparticles of imatinib mesylate coated with TPGS for the treatment of colon cancer: In-vivo & in-vitro studies.Carbohydr Polym. 2025;348:122935. [DOI] [PubMed]
Danaei M, Dehghankhold M, Ataei S, Hasanzadeh Davarani F, Javanmard R, Dokhani A, et al. Impact of Particle Size and Polydispersity Index on the Clinical Applications of Lipidic Nanocarrier Systems.Pharmaceutics. 2018;10:57. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Delan WK, Zakaria M, Elsaadany B, ElMeshad AN, Mamdouh W, Fares AR. Formulation of simvastatin chitosan nanoparticles for controlled delivery in bone regeneration: Optimization using Box-Behnken design, stability and in vivo study.Int J Pharm. 2020;577:119038. [DOI] [PubMed]
Shahab MS, Rizwanullah M, Alshehri S, Imam SS. Optimization to development of chitosan decorated polycaprolactone nanoparticles for improved ocular delivery of dorzolamide: In vitro, ex vivo and toxicity assessments.Int J Biol Macromol. 2020;163:2392–404. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ahmad S, Hafeez A. Formulation and Development of Curcumin-Piperine-Loaded S-SNEDDS for the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease.Mol Neurobiol. 2023;60:1067–82. [DOI] [PubMed]
Badran MM, Alomrani AH, Harisa GI, Ashour AE, Kumar A, Yassin AE. Novel docetaxel chitosan-coated PLGA/PCL nanoparticles with magnified cytotoxicity and bioavailability.Biomed Pharmacother. 2018;106:1461–8. [DOI] [PubMed]
Patra JK, Das G, Fraceto LF, Campos EVR, Rodriguez-Torres MDP, Acosta-Torres LS, et al. Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects.J Nanobiotechnology. 2018;16:71. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kumar V, Kumar R, Jain VK, Nagpal S. Preparation and characterization of nanocurcumin based hybrid virosomes as a drug delivery vehicle with enhanced anticancerous activity and reduced toxicity.Sci Rep. 2021;11:368. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bourang S, Asadian S, Noruzpour M, Mansuryar A, Azizi S, Ebrahimi HA, et al. PLA-HA/Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles loaded with curcumin: physicochemical characterization and toxicity evaluation in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells.Discov Appl Sci. 2025;6:186. [DOI]
Alam N, Koul M, Mintoo MJ, Khare V, Gupta R, Rawat N, et al. Development and characterization of hyaluronic acid modified PLGA based nanoparticles for improved efficacy of cisplatin in solid tumor.Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;95:856–64. [DOI] [PubMed]
Zhang X, Luo Q, Zhang F, Zhao X, Li Y, Yang N, et al. Preparation of PLA Nanoparticles and Study of Their Influencing Factors.Molecules. 2024;29:5566. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Patsidis AC, Sanida A, Manika GC, Gioti S, Mathioudakis GN, Petropoulos N, et al. Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticle/Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites with Induced Magnetic Performance.Polymers. 2025;17:1913. [DOI]
Ruiz E, Orozco VH, Hoyos LM, Giraldo LF. Study of sonication parameters on PLA nanoparticles preparation by simple emulsion-evaporation solvent technique.European Polymer Journal. 2022;173:111307. [DOI]
Lee S, Shanti A. Effect of Exogenous pH on Cell Growth of Breast Cancer Cells.Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:9910. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Chabib L, Martien R, Ismail H. Formulation of nanocurcumin using low viscosity chitosan polymer and its cellular uptake study into T47D cells.Indonesian J Pharm. 2012;23:27–35.
Hoo DY, Low ZL, Low DYS, Tang SY, Manickam S, Tan KW, et al. Ultrasonic cavitation: An effective cleaner and greener intensification technology in the extraction and surface modification of nanocellulose.Ultrason Sonochem. 2022;90:106176. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Suttiponparnit K, Jiang J, Sahu M, Suvachittanont S, Charinpanitkul T, Biswas P. Role of Surface Area, Primary Particle Size, and Crystal Phase on Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle Dispersion Properties.Nanoscale Res Lett. 2011;6:27. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wahnou H, El Kebbaj R, Liagre B, Sol V, Limami Y, Duval RE. Curcumin-Based Nanoparticles: Advancements and Challenges in Tumor Therapy.Pharmaceutics. 2025;17:114. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wahnou H, Hmimid F, Errami A, Nait Irahal I, Limami Y, Oudghiri M. Integrating ADMET, enrichment analysis, and molecular docking approach to elucidate the mechanism of Artemisia herba alba for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease-associated arthritis.J Toxicol Environ Health A. 2024;87:836–54. [DOI] [PubMed]
Muniyappan N, Pandeeswaran M, Amalraj A. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Curcuma pseudomontana isolated curcumin: Its characterization, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti- inflammatory activities.J Environ Chem Ecotoxicol. 2021;3:117–24. [DOI]
Nosrati H, Sefidi N, Sharafi A, Danafar H, Kheiri Manjili H. Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) coated iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles as biocompatible carriers for curcumin-anticancer drug.Bioorg Chem. 2018;76:501–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Prabhuraj RS, Bomb K, Srivastava R, Bandyopadhyaya R. Dual drug delivery of curcumin and niclosamide using PLGA nanoparticles for improved therapeutic effect on breast cancer cells.J Polym Res. 2020;27:133. [DOI]
Sedeky AS, Khalil IA, Hefnawy A, El-Sherbiny IM. Development of core-shell nanocarrier system for augmenting piperine cytotoxic activity against human brain cancer cell line.Eur J Pharm Sci. 2018;118:103–12. [DOI] [PubMed]
Riwaldt S, Corydon TJ, Pantalone D, Sahana J, Wise P, Wehland M, et al. Role of Apoptosis in Wound Healing and Apoptosis Alterations in Microgravity.Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2021;9:679650. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kanwal Q, Ahmed M, Hamza M, Ahmad M, Atiq-Ur-Rehman, Yousaf N, et al. Curcumin nanoparticles: physicochemical fabrication, characterization, antioxidant, enzyme inhibition, molecular docking and simulation studies.RSC Adv. 2023;13:22268–80. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
He Z, Liu K, Manaloto E, Casey A, Cribaro GP, Byrne HJ, et al. Cold Atmospheric Plasma Induces ATP-Dependent Endocytosis of Nanoparticles and Synergistic U373MG Cancer Cell Death.Sci Rep. 2018;8:5298. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wallace PK, Tario JD Jr, Fisher JL, Wallace SS, Ernstoff MS, Muirhead KA. Tracking antigen-driven responses by flow cytometry: monitoring proliferation by dye dilution.Cytometry A. 2008;73:1019–34. [DOI] [PubMed]
Abolhassani H, Safavi MS, Handali S, Nosrati M, Shojaosadati SA. Synergistic Effect of Self-Assembled Curcumin and Piperine Co-Loaded Human Serum Albumin Nanoparticles on Suppressing Cancer Cells.Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 2020;46:1647–55. [DOI] [PubMed]
Edgar JYC, Wang H. Introduction for Design of Nanoparticle Based Drug Delivery Systems.Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23:2108–12. [DOI] [PubMed]
Yallapu MM, Jaggi M, Chauhan SC. Curcumin Nanomedicine: A Road to Cancer Therapeutics.Curr Pharm Des. 2013;19:1994–2010. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ligasová A, Koberna K. DNA Dyes-Highly Sensitive Reporters of Cell Quantification: Comparison with Other Cell Quantification Methods.Molecules. 2021;26:5515. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ucisik MH, Küpcü S, Schuster B, Sleytr UB. Characterization of CurcuEmulsomes: nanoformulation for enhanced solubility and delivery of curcumin.J Nanobiotechnology. 2013;11:37. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Lund KC, Pantuso T. Combination Effects of Quercetin, Resveratrol and Curcumin on In Vitro Intestinal Absorption.J Restor Med. 2014;3:112–20. [DOI]
