Table Info

Table 3.

Combination therapies with cytokines

Sl. No.	Combination therapy	Cytokine used	Other therapy	Synergistic effect	Challenges	Reference
1	IL-2 and immune checkpoint inhibitors	IL-2	PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors	Enhance T cell activation	Severe immune-related toxicity	[63]
2	IFN-α with chemotherapy	IFN-α	Doxorubicin	Potentiates chemotherapy-induced tumor killing	Limited duration of response	[64]
3	TNF-α and radiotherapy	TNF-α	Localized radiation	Synergizes with radiation-induced cell death	Local tissue damage	[65]
4	IL-12 and IL-2	IL-12, IL-2	Dual cytokine therapy	Amplifies antitumor immune response	Cytokine release syndrome	[66]
5	IL-6 inhibition and chemotherapy	IL-6 antagonists	Cisplatin	Reduces chemotherapy resistance	Potential for exacerbating infection risks	[67]
6	IL-15 and NK cell adoptive transfer	IL-15	NK cell therapy	Enhances NK cell cytotoxicity	Cytokine-related toxicity	[50]
7	IL-10 blockade with PD-1 inhibitors	Anti-IL-10	PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors	Reverses immune suppression in TME	Increased risk of autoimmune diseases	[68]
8	TGF-β inhibitors and VEGF inhibitors	TGF-β inhibitors	Anti-angiogenic agents	Reduces tumor vasculature	Potential for severe adverse vascular events	[69]
9	IL-1 blockades with radiotherapy	IL-1 antagonists	Radiation	Reduces tumor recurrence	Immunosuppressive side effects	[70]
10	IL-22 inhibition and checkpoint inhibitors	IL-22 inhibitors	PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors	Overcomes immune evasion	Off-target effects on normal tissue	[71]
11	GM-CSF and cancer vaccines	GM-CSF	Peptide-based vaccines	Enhances vaccine efficacy	Inconsistent results across patient populations	[72]
12	IL-18 and chemotherapy	IL-18	Paclitaxel	Enhances chemotherapy-induced apoptosis	Severe cytokine-related toxicity	[73]
13	IL-2 and adoptive T cell therapy	IL-2	CAR-T therapy	Amplifies CAR-T cell efficacy	High toxicity and cytokine release syndrome	[74]
14	IFN-γ with oncolytic viruses	IFN-γ	Oncolytic viral therapy	Enhances viral-induced tumor cell death	High inflammatory response	[75]
15	TGF-β blockade with chemotherapy	TGF-β inhibitors	Cisplatin	Inhibits tumor progression and metastasis	Risk of systemic toxicity	[76]

IL-2: interleukin-2; IFN-α: interferon-alpha; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; NK: natural killer; TME: tumor microenvironment; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to their parent institutions for their continued support, resources, and encouragement throughout this research. Their infrastructural and administrative assistance was instrumental in the successful completion of this work.

Author contributions

MMCM: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. BSB: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. VAS: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation. SA: Writing—review & editing. HC: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

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