Table Info

Table 2.

Cytokine-based therapies in clinical application

Sl. No.	Therapy	Type	Mode of action	Challenges	Clinical trials	Reference
1	Engineered IL-2	Pro-inflammatory	Enhanced activation of T and NK cells	Systemic toxicity	Phase I/II	[41]
2	Pegylated IFN-α	Pro-inflammatory	Prolonged immune activation	Limited efficacy in solid tumors	Ongoing	[42]
3	TNF-α conjugates	Pro-inflammatory	Targeted tumor necrosis	Off-target effects	Preclinical	[43]
4	Anti-IL-10 antibodies	Immunosuppressive	Inhibits immunosuppressive IL-10	Immune-related adverse events	Phase I	[44]
5	TGF-β inhibitors	Immunosuppressive	Blocks TGF-β signaling in TME	Off-target inhibition	Phase II	[45]
6	IL-6R antagonists	Pro-inflammatory	Reduces tumor-associated inflammation	Potential for autoimmune reactions	Phase II	[46]
7	IL-12 gene therapy	Pro-inflammatory	Induces strong antitumor immune responses	Delivery challenges	Preclinical	[47]
8	IFN-γ therapy	Pro-inflammatory	Enhances macrophage activation	Short half-life	Ongoing	[48]
9	GM-CSF-based vaccines	Pro-inflammatory	Activates dendritic cells for immune priming	Inconsistent immune responses	Phase I	[49]
10	IL-15 superagonists	Pro-inflammatory	Amplifies T and NK cell cytotoxicity	Cytokine release syndrome	Phase I/II	[50]
11	IL-22 inhibitors	Immunosuppressive	Reduces immune evasion in TME	Specificity issues	Preclinical	[51]
12	Combination of IL-2 and checkpoint inhibitors	Pro-inflammatory	Synergizes T cell activation	Severe toxicity risks	Phase III	[52]
13	Pegylated IL-18	Pro-inflammatory	Enhances IFN-γ production	Uncertain dosing	Phase I	[53]
14	Localized TNF-α delivery	Pro-inflammatory	Targets tumor directly	Local inflammation	Preclinical	[54]
15	IL-1 receptor antagonists	Pro-inflammatory	Blocks IL-1-mediated tumor growth	Potential immune suppression	Ongoing	[55]

IL-2: interleukin-2; NK: natural killer; IFN-α: interferon-alpha; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TGF-β: transforming growth factor-beta; TME: tumor microenvironment

Declarations

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to their parent institutions for their continued support, resources, and encouragement throughout this research. Their infrastructural and administrative assistance was instrumental in the successful completion of this work.

Author contributions

MMCM: Conceptualization, Writing—original draft. BSB: Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. VAS: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation. SA: Writing—review & editing. HC: Supervision, Conceptualization, Validation.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Funding

Not applicable.

Copyright

Publisher’s note

Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.

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