FD effects on the endocrine system

S/NMethodsSolventPlant partsConcentrationsMajor findingsReference
1AqueousLeavesLeaf extracts of F. deltoidea may have anti-obesity properties based on their ability to inhibit the formation of mature adipocytes[67]
2In vivoMethanolLeaves250, 500, or 1,000 mg/kg/dayInsulin resistance, obesity index, TC, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, MDA, testosterone and FSH were reduced to near-normal levels in PCOS rats after treatment with F. deltoidea at 500 and 1000 mg/kg/day[69]
3Alpha-glycosidase and alpha-amylase assayMethanolLeaves50 μLThe extract showed strong alpha-glycosidase and alpha-amylase inhibitory actions (IC50 values of 15.1 and 39.42 μg/mL, respectively)
4In vivoHot aqueous, ethanol, methanol1,000 mg kgG1The equivalent IC50 values for the hot aqueous, ethanolic and methanolic extracts are 4.15, 2.06, and 1.72 mg mLG1, respectively. All extracts suppressed alpha glycosidase activity through a mixed-type inhibitory mechanism, according to kinetic analyses of the enzymes[70]
5In vivoHot aqueousLeavesLeaves hot aqueous extracts significantly boosted insulin secretion in experiments, with a 7.31-fold increase in stimulation at P < 0.001[68]
6Glucose uptake assayHot and cold aqueousLeavesAll the fractions except methanolic and n-Butanol possess insulin-mimetic activity[71]
7In vivoAqueous and n-hexaneEndophytic actinobacteriaSeventy-seven per cent of the 40 F. deltoidea endophytic actinobacteria isolates tested showed inhibitory action against rats (alpha-glucosidase)[72]
8Chang cells as the model of liver cellsEthanol and methanolLeaves10–1,000 μg/mLResearchers found that F. deltoidea extract significantly increased basal and insulin-mediated glucose absorption by 1.45 to 2.11-fold (P < 0.001). Insulin-mediated uptake was significantly more active than in the absence of insulin (P < 0.001)[73]
9Glucose uptake assayEthanolic, methanolic, and hot aqueousLeaves10–1,000 μg/mLFD extracts significantly boosted basal or insulin-mediated glucose uptake in muscle cells at dosages. Aqueous extract at low concentrations (10 μg/mL) promoted glucose uptake, but the extract at high concentrations (500 and 1,000 μg/mL) promoted basal glucose uptake[74]
10In vivoLeaves350 mg twice dailyFasting blood sugar, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1C) levels, renal function, or lipid profiles were unaffected. Patients in the intervention group claimed to feel more invigorated and revitalized than those in the control group[75]
11Methanol10–1,000 μg/mLBased on these findings, the modern candidate for antidiabetic drugs that target insulin secretion escalation from beta cells in the pancreas is the typical methanolic extract of FD variants[76]
12Glucose-responsive clonal insulin- secreting cell lineAqueousLeaves10–1,000 μg/mLFD extract at a dosage of 1,000 mg/mL significantly enhanced insulin secretion by 110%. In adipocyte 3T3F442A cells, glucose uptake was increased by an extra 41% at a concentration of 1,000 μg/mL in the baseline state and by an additional 35% at a concentration of 100 μg/mL in the insulin-mediated state[77]
13In vivo50, 70, 80, 90, and 95% ethanolLeaves5 g/kgThese findings suggest that FD, by downregulating protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), may improve insulin sensitivity, reduce hepatic glucose production, and increase glucose absorption in type 2 diabetes mellitus[78]
14α-Glycosidase inhibition assayHot aqueousLeaves156–5,000 μg/mLA concentration of 1,000 μg/mL of F. deltoidea considerably increased insulin secretion from pancreatic P-cells, with an increase of 7.31-fold (P < 0.001)[79]
15In vivoMethanolLeavesBoth treatments significantly increased SOD, GPx, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) activity. Additionally, the amount of TBARS reduced markedly[80]
16Yeast α-glucosidase inhibition assayHot aqueous125 μLThere were dose-dependent inhibitory effects on the activity of yeast and rats in the gut but no effect on porcine pancreatic -amylase. In terms of α-glucosidase inhibition, the water fraction had the highest protein content at 73.33 μg/mg fraction[18]
17In vivoMethanol, n-hexane, chloroform, n-butanolLeaves100, 200, and 400 mg/kgHydrophilic butanol sub-extract only showed blood glucose-lowering activity in normal mice, whereas methanol extract demonstrated blood glucose-lowering activity in both diabetic rats and normal mice. Methanol extract may contain insulin receptor sensitization and secretagogue components[81]
18In vivoLeaves1, 3, and 15 mg/kgIn normoglycemic mice given sucrose at 30 min, oral treatment of 1 mg/kg of vitexin (1) or isovitexin (2) significantly decreased postprandial blood glucose levels at P < 0.05. The percentage of postprandial blood glucose reduction was the highest with oral administration of 200 mg/kg isovitexin or 100 mg/kg isovitexin to sucrose-loaded diabetic rats[82]
19In vivoPetroleum ether, chloroform, and methanolLeaves250, 500, and 1,000 mg/kgAfter administering methanol extract by mouth, glucose tolerance improved. The antidiabetic effect of the methanol extract was highly significant at P < 0.01. In streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, the extract therapy significantly reduced fasting blood glucose levels at P < 0.01. The extract treatment significantly halted weight loss in rats after streptozotocin administration[83]
20In vivoEthanolic aqueousLeaves250 and 500 mg/kgF. deltoidea did not cause severe hypoglycemia when the extracts were given to normal rats at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg. However, in the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), the leaf extracts reduced plasma glucose levels significantly after 30 min, albeit at varying levels, with F. deltoidea var. intermedia is the most efficient[84]
21In vivoHot aqueousLeaves100, 500, and 1,000 mg/kgTwo hours after giving 1,000 mg/kg of aqueous extract to a mildly diabetic rat, the rat’s blood sugar level dropped[85]
22In vivo250 mg/kgAn elevated blood sugar level was reduced to an acceptable level following 30 days of treatment with F. deltoidea varietal trengganuensis, varietal arteleri, and varietal intermedia standardized extracts. In diabetic rats, the extracts substantially impacted the biochemical markers[86]
23LeavesVitexin and isovitexin, pungent components of F. deltoidea leaves, significantly inhibited amylase at P < 0.05 in an ethanol-water extract at 50%[39]
24In vivoEthanolicLeaves500 and 1,000 mg/kg body weight (BW)Ethanolic extract of F. deltoidea reduced fasting blood glucose, particularly after 6 h of administration at all doses tested. When compared to metformin, the extract did not cause severe hypoglycemia. After 4 and 6 h, postprandial hyperglycaemia was significantly reduced as well[87]
25α-Glucosidase inhibitory assayMethanolLeaves10 μLThe anti-diabetic results showed that var. deltoidea, var. bornensis, var. intermedia, var. bilobata, var. kunstleri, var. trengganuensis and var. motleyana displayed glucosidase inhibition with IC50 values of 6, 20, 26, and 36.5 μg/mL, respectively[40]
26In vivoAqueousFruits150 and 300 mg/kgThe α-glucosidase assay revealed the highest protein concentration of 73.33 μg/mg in the aqueous fraction[88]
27In vivoAqueousLeavesUsing aqueous extracts of all plants tested, blood glucose levels in rats were reduced by up to 50% over three to four weeks. Extraction from Lagerstroemia speciosa, followed by FD and Areca catechu, reduced blood glucose levels by the most, according to a new study[89]
28In vivoLeavesA combination of F. deltoidea and vitexin improved pancreatic antioxidant enzymes and boosted islet regeneration in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, rats treated with F. deltoidea had significantly higher insulin secretion[90]
29In vivoMethanolLeaves1,000 mg/kg BWWhen F. deltoidea was given to diabetic rats, bone mineral density (BMD) went from 526.98 to 637.74, which is a big change. Compared to diabetic control, F. deltoidea treatment led to higher levels of insulin (2.41 vs. 1.58), osteocalcin (155.66 vs. 14.35), and total bone n-3 PUFA (2.34 vs. 1.44). Chondrocyte hypertrophy was also present[91]