Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
References
Weinstein SL, Dolan LA, Wright JG, Dobbs MB. Effects of Bracing in Adolescents with Idiopathic Scoliosis.N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1512–21. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Dubousset J, Charpak G, Dorion I, Skalli W, Lavaste F, Deguise J, et al. A new 2D and 3D imaging approach to musculoskeletal physiology and pathology with low-dose radiation and the standing position: the EOS system.Bull acad Natl Med. 2005;189:287–97; discussion 297. [DOI] [PubMed]
Illés T, Somoskeöy S. The EOS™ imaging system and its uses in daily orthopaedic practice.Int Orthop. 2012;36:1325–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Slongo T, Audigé L, Schlickewei W, Clavert JM, Hunter J; International Association for Pediatric Traumatology. Development and Validation of the AO Pediatric Comprehensive Classification of Long Bone Fractures by the Pediatric Expert Group of the AO Foundation in Collaboration With AO Clinical Investigation and Documentation and the International Association for Pediatric Traumatology.J Pediatr Orthop. 2006;26:43–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Ömeroğlu H, Yüksel S, Demir P, Alexiev V, Alsiddiky A, Anticevic D, et al. An Eastern Europe and Middle East multinational expert Delphi consensus study on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of developmental dysplasia of the hip before walking age.Int Orthop. 2023;48:1373–80. [DOI] [PubMed]
Akbarnia BA, Marks DS, Boachie-Adjei O, Thompson AG, Asher MA. Dual Growing Rod Technique for the Treatment of Progressive Early-Onset Scoliosis.Spine. 2005;30:S46–57. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hefti F. Pediatric orthopedics in practice. Springer; 2015.
Graf R. Fundamentals of sonographic diagnosis of infant hip dysplasia.J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4:735–40. [DOI] [PubMed]
PALEY D, TETSWORTH K. Mechanical Axis Deviation of the Lower Limbs.Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1992;280:48–64. [DOI]
Wystrach L, Wendt M, Bode L, Kubosch EJ, Kuminack K, Schmal H, et al. Prospective video-based analysis of coronal lower limb alignment may be as accurate as radiography in children.BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2025;26:1073. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Prestigiacomo FG, Hulsbosch MHHM, Bruls VEJ, Nieuwenhuis JJ. Intra- and inter-observer reliability of Cobb angle measurements in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis.Spine Deform. 2021;10:79–86. [DOI] [PubMed]
Deschênes S, Charron G, Beaudoin G, Labelle H, Dubois J, Miron MC, et al. Diagnostic imaging of spinal deformities: reducing patients radiation dose with a new slot-scanning X-ray imager.Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35:989–94. [DOI] [PubMed]
Miyake J, Murase T, Oka K, Moritomo H, Sugamoto K, Yoshikawa H. Computer-assisted corrective osteotomy for malunited diaphyseal forearm fractures using custom-made surgical guides based on computer simulation: a cadaveric study.J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94:e150. [DOI]
Yang S, Andras LM, Redding GJ, Skaggs DL. Early-Onset Scoliosis: A Review of History, Current Treatment, and Future Directions.Pediatrics. 2016;137:e137. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dreyfuss A, Schmidt J, Villa M. Ultrasound Applications in Global Health.In: Advanced Point-of-Care Ultrasound. Springer; 2025. pp. 605–16. [DOI]
Lohre R, Bois AJ, Pollock JW, Lapner P, McIlquham K, Athwal GS, et al. Effectiveness of Immersive Virtual Reality on Orthopedic Surgical Skills and Knowledge Acquisition Among Senior Surgical Residents.JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3:e2031217. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Vaughan N, Dubey VN, Wainwright TW, Middleton RG. A review of virtual reality based training simulators for orthopaedic surgery.Med Eng Phys. 2016;38:59–71. [DOI]
Burström G, Persson O, Edström E, Elmi-Terander A. Augmented reality navigation in spine surgery: a systematic review.Acta Neurochir. 2021;163:843–52. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Docquier PL, Paul L, TranDuy K. Surgical navigation in paediatric orthopaedics.EFORT Open Rev. 2017;1:152–9. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Galbusera F, Casaroli G, Bassani T. Artificial intelligence and machine learning in spine research.JOR SPINE. 2019;2:e1044. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Choi JW, Cho YJ, Ha JY, Lee YY, Koh SY, Seo JY, et al. Deep Learning-Assisted Diagnosis of Pediatric Skull Fractures on Plain Radiographs.Korean J Radiol. 2022;23:343–54. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hržić F, Tschauner S, Sorantin E, Štajduhar I. Fracture Recognition in Paediatric Wrist Radiographs: An Object Detection Approach.Mathematics. 2022;10:2939. [DOI]
Fang X, Weng T, Zhang Z, Gong W, Zhang Y, Wang M, et al. Progression risk of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis based on SHAP-Explained machine learning models: a multicenter retrospective study.BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2025;26:598. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Hill BG, Krogue JD, Jevsevar DS, Schilling PL. Deep Learning and Imaging for the Orthopaedic Surgeon.J Bone Jt Surg. 2022;104:1675–86. [DOI] [PubMed]
Gyftopoulos S, Lin D, Knoll F, Doshi AM, Rodrigues TC, Recht MP. Artificial Intelligence in Musculoskeletal Imaging: Current Status and Future Directions.Am J Roentgenol. 2019;213:506–13. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Ogink PT, Groot OQ, Karhade AV, Bongers MER, Oner FC, Verlaan JJ, et al. Wide range of applications for machine-learning prediction models in orthopedic surgical outcome: a systematic review.Acta Orthop. 2021;92:526–31. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Vescio A, Testa G, Sapienza M, Familiari F, Mercurio M, Gasparini G, et al. Artificial intelligence in pediatric orthopedics: a comprehensive review.Medicina (Kaunas). 2025;61:954. [DOI]
Song J, Wang GC, Wang SC, He CR, Zhang YZ, Chen X, et al. Artificial intelligence in orthopedics: fundamentals, current applications, and future perspectives.Mil Med Res. 2025;12:42. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Kim HK, Shiraj S, Anton CG, Horn PS, Dardzinski BJ. Age and Sex Dependency of Cartilage T2 Relaxation Time Mapping in MRI of Children and Adolescents.Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202:626–32. [DOI] [PubMed]
Burstein D, Velyvis J, Scott KT, Stock KW, Kim Y, Jaramillo D, et al. Protocol issues for delayed Gd(DTPA)2‐enhanced MRI (dGEMRIC) for clinical evaluation of articular cartilage.Magn Reson Med. 2001;45:36–41. [DOI]
Lombardi AF, Guma M, Chung CB, Chang EY, Du J, Ma YJ. Ultrashort echo time magnetic resonance imaging of the osteochondral junction.NMR Biomed. 2022;36:e4843. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Moritz JD. Sonographic Fracture Diagnosis in Children and Adolescents.RöFo - Fortschr auf Geb Röntgenstrahlen bildgeb Verfahr. 2023;195:790–6. [DOI] [PubMed]
Hübner U, Schlicht W, Outzen S, Barthel M, Halsband H. Ultrasound in the diagnosis of fractures in children.J Bone Jt Surg Br. 2000;82-B:1170–3. [DOI]
Eckert K, Janssen N, Ackermann O, Schweiger B, Radeloff E, Liedgens P. Ultrasound diagnosis of supracondylar fractures in children.Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2013;40:159–68. [DOI] [PubMed]
He JQ, Ma XL, Zhang X, Xin JY, Li N. Three‐dimensional Computer‐assisted Modeling of Talus Morphology in Chinese Patients.Orthop Surg. 2016;8:383–92. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
George E, Liacouras P, Rybicki FJ, Mitsouras D. Measuring and Establishing the Accuracy and Reproducibility of 3D Printed Medical Models.RadioGraphics. 2017;37:1424–50. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Diniz P, Grimm B, Garcia F, Fayad J, Ley C, Mouton C, et al. Digital twin systems for musculoskeletal applications: A current concepts review.Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2025;33:1892–910. [DOI] [PubMed]
Murphy SV, Atala A. 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs.Nat Biotechnol. 2014;32:773–85. [DOI]
Fong FJY, Onggo JD, Munro YL, Yam MGJ. Applications of 3D printing in orthopedics: a scoping review.Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2025;35:367–75. [DOI] [PubMed]
Moldovan F. Recent Trends in Bioprinting.Procedia Manuf. 2019;32:95–101. [DOI]
Bess S, Akbarnia BA, Thompson GH, Sponseller PD, Shah SA, El-Hawary R, et al. Complications of growing-rod treatment for early-onset scoliosis: analysis of one hundred and forty patients.J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92:2533-43. [DOI]
Adhiyaman A, Tracey OC, Zucker C, Wisch J, Widmann RF, Heyer JH. Utilizing robotic-assisted navigation for pelvic instrumentation in pediatric patients with neuromuscular scoliosis: a technical note and case series.Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2024;34:2205–11. [DOI] [PubMed]
Lex JR, Koucheki R, Toor J, Backstein DJ. Clinical applications of augmented reality in orthopaedic surgery: a comprehensive narrative review.Int Orthop. 2022;47:375–91. [DOI] [PubMed]
Mavrogenis AF, Savvidou OD, Mimidis G, Papanastasiou J, Koulalis D, Demertzis N, et al. Computer-assisted Navigation in Orthopedic Surgery.Orthopedics. 2013;36:631–42. [DOI] [PubMed]
Dabaghi Richerand A, Christodoulou E, Li Y, Caird MS, Jong N, Farley FA. Comparison of Effective Dose of Radiation During Pedicle Screw Placement Using Intraoperative Computed Tomography Navigation Versus Fluoroscopy in Children With Spinal Deformities.J Pediatr Orthop. 2016;36:530–3. [DOI] [PubMed]
Sawyer JR. Radiation Reduction Strategies in Pediatric Orthopaedics.J Pediatr Orthop. 2021;41:S75–S79. [DOI] [PubMed]
Cirrincione P, Widmann RF, Heyer JH. Advances in robotics and pediatric spine surgery.Curr Opin Pediatr. 2022;35:102–9. [DOI] [PubMed]
Kantelhardt SR, Martinez R, Baerwinkel S, Burger R, Giese A, Rohde V. Perioperative course and accuracy of screw positioning in conventional, open robotic-guided and percutaneous robotic-guided, pedicle screw placement.Eur Spine J. 2011;20:860–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Wang E, Manning J, Varlotta CG, Passias PG, Fischer C, Gidumal S, et al. Radiation exposure in posterior lumbar fusion: a comparison of CT image-guided navigation, robotic assistance, and intraoperative fluoroscopy.Global Spine J. 2021;11:450–7. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Shen LT, Tou J. Application and prospects of robotic surgery in children: a scoping review.World J Pediatr Surg. 2022;5:e000482. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Bai L, Yang J, Chen X, Sun Y, Li X. Medical Robotics in Bone Fracture Reduction Surgery: A Review.Sensors. 2019;19:3593. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Alasadi H, Rajjoub R, Alasadi Y, Wilczek A, Lonner BS. Vertebral body tethering for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a review.Spine Deform. 2024;12:561–75. [DOI] [PubMed]
Papanna MC, Saldanha KA, Kurian B, Fernandes JA, Jones S. The use of recombinant morphogenic protein-2(rhBMP-2) in children undergoing revision surgery for persistent non-union.Strateg Trauma Limb Reconstr. 2016;11:53–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Siebert MJ, Makarewich CA. Anterolateral tibial bowing and congenital pseudarthrosis: current concepts and future directions.Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2022;15:173–83. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Padilla S, Orive G, Sanchez M, Anitua E. Platelet-rich plasma in orthopaedic applications: evidence-based recommendations.J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014;22:469–71. [DOI]
Govender S, Csimma C, Genant HK, Valentin-Opran A, Amit Y, Arbel R, et al. RECOMBINANT HUMAN BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN-2 FOR TREATMENT OF OPEN TIBIAL FRACTURES.J Bone Jt Surg-Am Vol. 2002;84:2123–34. [DOI] [PubMed]
Grill F, Bollini G, Dungl P, Fixsen J, Hefti F, Ippolito E, et al. Treatment Approaches for Congenital Pseudarthrosis of Tibia: Results of the EPOS Multicenter Study.J Pediatr Orthop B. 2000;9:75–89. [DOI] [PubMed]
Friedlaender GE, Perry CR, Cole JD, Cook SD, Cierny G, Muschler GF, et al. Osteogenic Protein-1 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein-7) in the Treatment of Tibial Nonunions.J Bone Jt Surg-Am Vol. 2001;83:S151–S158. [DOI]
Plánka L, Starý D, Hlučilová J, Klíma J, Jančář J, Křen L, et al. Comparison of Preventive and Therapeutic Transplantations of Allogeneic Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Healing of the Distal Femoral Growth Plate Cartilage Defects in Miniature Pigs.Acta Vet Brno. 2009;78:293–302. [DOI]
Turnbull G, Clarke J, Picard F, Riches P, Jia L, Han F, et al. 3D bioactive composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.Bioact Mater. 2018;3:278–314. [DOI]
Liu N, Zhang X, Guo Q, Wu T, Wang Y. 3D Bioprinted Scaffolds for Tissue Repair and Regeneration.Front Mater. 2022;9:925321. [DOI]
Bose S, Roy M, Bandyopadhyay A. Recent advances in bone tissue engineering scaffolds.Trends Biotechnol. 2012;30:546–54. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
Pobloth AM, Checa S, Razi H, Petersen A, Weaver JC, Schmidt-Bleek K, et al. Mechanobiologically optimized 3D titanium-mesh scaffolds enhance bone regeneration in critical segmental defects in sheep.Sci Transl Med. 2018;10:eaam8828. [DOI] [PubMed]
Harrison A, Lin S, Pounder N, Mikuni-Takagaki Y. Mode & mechanism of low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) in fracture repair.Ultrasonics. 2016;70:45–52. [DOI] [PubMed]
Benson LC, Clermont CA, Bošnjak E, Ferber R. The use of wearable devices for walking and running gait analysis outside of the lab: A systematic review.Gait Posture. 2018;63:124–38. [DOI] [PubMed]
Moosavi H, Curtis-Lopez C, Dragonas C, Birkett N, Britten O, Manoukian D. Management of fracture non-union in children: a literature review with two case studies.Cureus. 2025;17:e97854. [DOI]
Liu DS, Snyder BD, Mahan ST. Fracture nonunion and delayed union.J Pediatr Orthop Soc N Am. 2024;7:100058. [DOI]
Wang Y, Yi H, Song Y. The safety of mesenchymal stem cell therapy over the past 15 years: a meta-analysis.Stem Cell Res Ther. 2021;12:545. [DOI]
Abd-Elaziem W, Darwish MA, Hamada A, Daoush WM. Titanium-Based alloys and composites for orthopedic implants Applications: A comprehensive review.Mater Des. 2024;241:112850. [DOI]
Flynn JM, Hresko T, Reynolds RAK, Blasier RD, Davidson R, Kasser J. Titanium Elastic Nails for Pediatric Femur Fractures: A Multicenter Study of Early Results with Analysis of Complications.J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21:4–8. [DOI]
Ligier JN, Metaizeau JP, Prévot J, Lascombes P. Elastic stable intramedullary nailing of femoral shaft fractures in children.J Bone Jt Surg, Br vol. 1988;70:74–7. [DOI] [PubMed]
Keeler KA, Dart B, Luhmann SJ, Schoenecker PL, Ortman MR, Dobbs MB, et al. Antegrade Intramedullary Nailing of Pediatric Femoral Fractures Using an Interlocking Pediatric Femoral Nail and a Lateral Trochanteric Entry Point.J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29:345–51. [DOI] [PubMed]
Reynolds RA, Legakis JE, Thomas R, Slongo TF, Hunter JB, Clavert JM. Intramedullary nails for pediatric diaphyseal femur fractures in older, heavier children: Early results.J Child Orthop. 2012;6:181–8. [DOI] [PubMed] [PMC]
