TY  - JOUR
TI  - The influence of sex and gender differences in shaping the immune response to influenza infection and vaccination
AU  - Calabrò, Anna
AU  - Aiello, Anna
AU  - Montomoli, Emanuele
AU  - Pawelec, Graham
AU  - Trombetta, Claudia Maria
AU  - Caruso, Calogero
PY  - 2026
JO  - Exploration of Immunology
VL  - 6
SP  - 1003244
DO  - 10.37349/ei.2026.1003244
UR  - https://www.explorationpub.com/Journals/ei/Article/1003244
AB  - This review highlights the significant sex-based differences in immune responses to influenza infection and vaccination. Men are generally more susceptible to severe influenza outcomes, while women often mount stronger immune responses but experience more adverse effects. These disparities are influenced by biological factors, including sex hormones and genes, as well as gender-related social and environmental conditions. Evidence from both human and animal studies reveals sex-specific variations in antibody production, vaccine effectiveness, and clinical outcomes. Age, hormonal status, and stress further modulate these differences. Understanding these complex interactions is essential for developing tailored and equitable vaccination and treatment strategies.
ER  -