Climate change is one of the most significant threats to global food security and sustainability in the 21st century [45–47]. As global temperatures rise, weather patterns shift, and extreme climate events become more frequent, the intricate balance of agricultural systems is increasingly disrupted, with profound implications for global food systems and environmental sustainability. Climate changes, precipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, directly affect crop yields and livestock productivity. For example, studies have shown that a 2°C increase in global temperatures could reduce the yields of major crops like wheat, rice, and maize by up to 25% in some regions [42, 47, 48]. Additionally, rising sea levels and increased salinization of coastal soils pose risks to agricultural lands, particularly in low-lying areas [49]. Agriculture is susceptible to climate variations. Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns directly affect crop yields, livestock health, and soil fertility. Prolonged droughts, intense heatwaves, and flooding can reduce agricultural productivity by damaging crops, disrupting planting schedules, and increasing pest and disease outbreaks. For example, staple crops like wheat, rice, and maize, the backbone of the global food supply, are particularly vulnerable to heat stress, leading to reduced yields and increased production costs. Furthermore, shifting climate zones force farmers to adapt by altering cropping patterns or relocating agricultural activities, which may not always be feasible. Climate change exacerbates food insecurity by disrupting the availability, accessibility, and affordability of food. Reduced crop yields and livestock productivity increase food prices, disproportionately affecting low-income populations [50]. Extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods further strain food supply chains by damaging infrastructure and disrupting transportation networks. Regions already grappling with food insecurity, such as sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, are particularly vulnerable to these effects. In addition, climate-induced displacement of communities can lead to increased competition for resources, further exacerbating food scarcity in affected regions [51]. Sustainability in agriculture hinges on the efficient use of natural resources, environmental stewardship, and resilience to external shocks. Climate change undermines these principles by accelerating soil degradation, depleting water resources, and threatening biodiversity. For instance, erratic rainfall patterns and prolonged droughts deplete freshwater supplies, intensifying competition for water between agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses [52]. Similarly, the loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction and changing ecosystems weakens natural processes, such as pollination and pest control, which are critical for sustainable farming systems. Mitigating the impact of climate change on agriculture, food security, and sustainability requires a multi-faceted approach [53], such as:

CSA: practices that boost resilience, such as agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and precision farming, can facilitate farmers’ adaptation to changing environments while lowering greenhouse gas emissions.

Climate change, food security, and sustainability confront the challenge of urgent and groundbreaking resolutions. By selecting resilience, sustainability, and equity in agricultural approaches, humankind can safeguard food security for forthcoming generations while dismissing agriculture’s ecological trajectory. Directing on climate change in agriculture is an obligation for persistence and an opening to generate a more sustainable and rightful global food system.

Soil degradation, including erosion, nutrient depletion, and loss of organic matter, is a significant concern for global agriculture. Approximately 33% of the world’s arable land has been lost to erosion or pollution over the last 40 years [54]. This loss of productive land undermines agricultural capacity and exacerbates food insecurity, particularly in regions already facing resource constraints. Water scarcity is another critical issue, with agriculture accounting for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals [55]. The increasing competition for water resources, driven by population growth, urbanization, and industrialization, puts pressure on water availability for agriculture. In many regions, the over-extraction of groundwater and the depletion of rivers and lakes leads to the unsustainable use of water resources, threatening the long-term viability of agricultural systems [47, 56, 57].

Biodiversity loss is a significant threat to the resilience of agricultural systems [58]. The genetic diversity of crops and livestock is essential for breeding new varieties resistant to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. However, modern farming practices, such as monocropping and the widespread use of chemical inputs, have reduced farm biodiversity [1]. The loss of biodiversity reduces agriculture’s ability to adapt to changing conditions and undermines ecosystem services, such as pollination and soil fertility, which are critical for food production.

Socio-economic inequality is a significant barrier to food security, particularly in developing countries. Despite the global abundance of food, nearly 690 million people worldwide were undernourished in 2019, a rise from 2014 [39, 43, 59]. Inequities in income, access to resources, and political power often result in unequal access to food, with vulnerable populations, such as smallholder farmers, women, and children, being disproportionately affected.

CSA involves practices that increase productivity while enhancing resilience to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions [60, 61]. Techniques such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and integrated pest management (IPM) can help farmers adapt to changing conditions and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture [62, 63]. Improving the efficiency of resource use, particularly water and soil, is critical for sustainable agriculture [64]. Drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and precision agriculture can reduce water use and improve crop yields. Similarly, crop rotation, cover cropping, and organic farming can enhance soil health and reduce the need for chemical inputs [19, 65].

Maintaining and enhancing agricultural biodiversity is essential for the long-term sustainability of food systems. This includes preserving traditional crop varieties, promoting diverse cropping systems, and protecting natural habitats that support beneficial species such as pollinators [58]. Conservation efforts at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels are necessary to ensure the resilience of agricultural systems [66].

Socio-economic inequality is crucial for achieving food security [67, 68]. This involves ensuring that smallholder farmers, women, and marginalized groups have access to resources, markets, and decision-making processes. Empowering communities through education, capacity building, and equitable policies can help create more inclusive and resilient food systems [69, 70]. Figure 3 shows a stepwise outline of agriculture’s main components and relationships with food security.

The productivity of farming systems is vital for ensuring a stable food supply [45, 86]. Advances in agricultural technologies, including high-yielding crop varieties, precision farming, and sustainable practices, have significantly enhanced food production [87]. For instance, the Green Revolution in the mid-20th century led to remarkable increases in food production in Asia and Latin America, improving food security in these regions. Climate change poses a significant threat to agriculture and, consequently, to food security. Extreme weather events, shifting weather patterns, and the increasing frequency of droughts and floods can devastate crops and reduce agricultural productivity [63, 88]. According to the FAO, climate change could reduce agricultural yields by up to 25% by 2050, with the most severe impacts expected in developing countries where food insecurity is already prevalent [61, 89]. The availability and management of natural resources, particularly land and water, are critical for agricultural productivity [65, 90]. Soil degradation, deforestation, and water scarcity are significant challenges that threaten the sustainability of agriculture. Efficient use of these resources through crop rotation, agroforestry, and irrigation management can enhance food security by ensuring long-term agricultural productivity [64, 90, 91].

Market access, pricing policies, and trade regulations significantly influence agriculture’s role in food security. Farmers need access to markets to sell their produce reasonably, and consumers need affordable and nutritious food. Economic policies that support smallholder farmers in reducing food waste and promoting fair trade can enhance food security [92, 93]. Food security also depends on social and political factors. Conflict, instability, and poor governance can disrupt agricultural production and distribution, leading to food shortages and famine [67]. Ensuring political stability and good governance is essential for creating an environment where agriculture can thrive and contribute to food security.

The global population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, increasing the demand for food by 70%. Meeting this demand will require a significant increase in agricultural productivity, which is challenging given the constraints on natural resources and the impacts of climate change [45, 94, 95]. As mentioned earlier, climate change and environmental degradation threaten agricultural productivity. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and changing precipitation patterns can reduce crop yields and affect food quality [45, 47, 63, 96]. Rapid urbanization is reducing the amount of arable land available for agriculture, particularly in developing countries. Urban expansion often converts fertile agricultural land into metropolitan areas, reducing the land available for food production [9, 97, 98]. Approximately one-third of all food produced globally is wasted, representing a significant loss of resources and contributing to food insecurity. Reducing food waste through improved storage, transportation, and consumption practices is essential for enhancing food security [99, 100].

Agricultural production is vulnerable to pests and diseases, which can lead to significant crop losses. Climate change and global trade exacerbate the spread of pests and diseases, making it a growing concern for food security [101, 102].

Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is essential for enhancing food security. Crop diversification, conservation agriculture, IPM, and organic farming can improve agricultural productivity while preserving natural resources [65, 87, 103]. Continued farm research and development investment is crucial for developing new technologies and practices to enhance agricultural productivity. Research on drought-resistant crops, precision farming, and biotechnology can help farmers adapt to changing environmental conditions and improve food security [68, 95, 104–106].

Improving rural infrastructure, including roads, storage facilities, and irrigation systems, can enhance agricultural productivity and reduce post-harvest losses. Access to reliable infrastructure also improves farmers’ access to markets, enabling them to sell their produce at fair prices [41, 107]. Smallholder farmers are critical in food production, particularly in developing countries. Empowering these farmers through access to credit, extension services, and market information can enhance their productivity and contribute to food security [67, 108]. Governments and international organizations must implement policies supporting agricultural development and food security. These policies should include measures to support sustainable agriculture, reduce food waste, and ensure fair trade practices [40, 97]. Adopting CSA practices can help mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture. These practices include using drought-resistant crop varieties, improving water management, and enhancing soil fertility through sustainable land management practices [107, 109].

Severe global events, such as large-scale volcanic eruptions and nuclear wars, threaten food security by interrupting agricultural systems and supply chains [89]. The critical link between agricultural policy and global food security is shown in Table 2. Volcanic eruptions, such as the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, have historically caused “volcanic winters” where ash clouds block sunlight, reducing global temperatures and impairing crop yields [89, 110]. These climatic interferences can result in extensive famine, as demonstrated by the year without a summer in 1816, which led to agricultural collapse in Europe and North America [111]. Similarly, the aftermath of a nuclear war—often called ‘nuclear winter’ would affect noteworthy atmospheric soot and aerosols, significantly reducing sunlight and dropping temperatures worldwide [112–114]. This situation would relentlessly impede photosynthesis, leading to disastrous failures in agricultural productivity. Staple crops such as maize, wheat, and rice could face failures exceeding 90%, even in temperate zones [106]. Furthermore, disturbances in worldwide trade and food delivery systems due to geopolitical uncertainty would remarkably impair food shortage and malnutrition in food-insecure territories [112]. Adopting these risks requires robust strategies, including progressing resilient crop varieties, improving global food detachments, and encouraging international collaboration to mitigate the long-term shocks of such catastrophic occurrences [113, 114].

Future research should prioritize advanced breeding techniques and biotechnological innovations to develop climate-resilient crop varieties capable of withstanding drought, flooding, and extreme temperatures. Unraveling the genetic basis of these traits can enable the creation of crops that are better adapted to the challenges posed by changing climate conditions [55, 86, 127]. Additionally, leveraging data-driven technologies such as remote sensing and real-time monitoring systems can revolutionize crop health and soil condition management. Integrating big data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML) holds immense potential to optimize agricultural inputs such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides, improving resource efficiency and boosting productivity. Research should also promote agroecological practices, including crop rotation, intercropping, and agroforestry, to enhance soil fertility, manage pests naturally, and increase biodiversity [107]. These practices support ecological sustainability and provide socio-economic benefits to smallholder farmers, which warrant further exploration. Sustainable nutrient management must be another priority area for future studies. Emphasis should be placed on developing biofertilizers, organic soil amendments, and techniques to enhance soil carbon sequestration, reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers while improving soil health. Additionally, IPM strategies that combine biological, cultural, and mechanical control methods with minimal pesticide use should be further investigated. Research into the role of natural predators and biocontrol agents in reducing pest populations can provide ecologically sound solutions for pest management. By addressing these critical areas, we can advance agricultural sustainability, resilience, and productivity, ultimately contributing to global food security in the face of growing environmental and socio-economic challenges.

Advancing innovative technologies and practices to reduce post-harvest losses, particularly in developing countries, is critical for enhancing global food security. Research should focus on improving storage, packaging, and transportation methods and developing strategies to minimize food waste at the consumer level [113]. Additionally, evaluating the sustainability of global and local food supply chains is essential, emphasizing reducing environmental footprints, promoting fair trade practices, and ensuring equitable compensation for smallholder farmers. Studies should also investigate methods to enhance traceability and transparency in food systems, fostering greater accountability and fairness. As urbanization accelerates, research into the potential of urban agriculture to address food security challenges is increasingly essential. Investigations should assess the economic feasibility, environmental sustainability, and social implications of integrating urban farming into city planning. Simultaneously, the role of women in agriculture and food security must be explored, with strategies aimed at empowering female farmers by addressing gender disparities in access to resources, education, and decision-making. Understanding and addressing the challenges smallholder farmers face, who produce a significant portion of the world’s food, is paramount [128]. Research should explore innovative approaches to improving access to markets, credit, and technology while enhancing their resilience to economic and environmental shocks. Moreover, examining the influence of policy frameworks and governance structures on agricultural practices and food security outcomes is essential. This includes evaluating the effectiveness of existing policies and designing new frameworks that promote sustainable agriculture, fair trade, and food sovereignty [105]. Biofortification should be a research priority, focusing on developing crops enriched with essential nutrients such as vitamins and minerals through conventional breeding and genetic engineering. Such advancements can significantly improve the nutritional quality of staple crops, particularly in regions facing micronutrient deficiencies [104]. Diversifying agricultural production and promoting the consumption of nutrient-dense foods, including fruits, vegetables, legumes, and animal-source products, is also crucial. Studies should investigate the cultural, economic, and environmental factors influencing dietary habits and their implications for food systems. Finally, there is a pressing need to develop and refine tools for assessing food and nutrition security at household and community levels. These tools can help identify vulnerable populations, guide interventions, and improve nutritional outcomes. By addressing these research priorities, we can foster resilient, equitable, and sustainable food systems that meet the dietary needs of a growing global population [91].

Advancing innovative financing mechanisms is essential for supporting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing the resilience of farming systems. Research should focus on models such as impact investing, microfinance, and public-private partnerships that enable farmers to access the capital needed to adopt sustainable technologies and practices [129]. Developing agricultural insurance products and risk management tools is crucial to protect farmers against the financial impacts of climate change, market volatility, and other uncertainties. Studies could emphasize the design and implementation of index-based insurance schemes and other tailored financial instruments to meet the specific needs of smallholder farmers [130]. Another critical area of research is the role of digital platforms in delivering agricultural extension services, especially in remote and underserved areas. These platforms can facilitate the timely dissemination of information on weather, pest management, market trends, and best practices, empowering farmers to make informed decisions. Furthermore, blockchain technology offers promising opportunities to enhance transparency and traceability in food supply chains. Research should explore its potential to improve food safety, reduce fraud, and promote fair trade practices. Addressing these research priorities can contribute to developing innovative financial, technological, and policy tools that promote sustainable agriculture, improve farmers’ livelihoods, and ensure more transparent and equitable food systems [131].

Integrating Internet of Things (IoT) technologies in agriculture holds immense potential for monitoring and optimizing agricultural processes, thereby enhancing efficiency and productivity. Key research areas include developing and applying intelligent sensors, automated irrigation systems, and precision livestock farming. These technologies can significantly improve resource utilization, reduce waste, and support data-driven decision-making in farming systems. Future agriculture and food security research must embrace a holistic and interdisciplinary approach, incorporating technological, ecological, social, and economic dimensions. Addressing the multifaceted challenges of global food systems requires innovative solutions that enhance agricultural productivity while promoting sustainability and resilience. Such efforts are critical for food security amid growing environmental and socio-economic pressures. This comprehensive research agenda aligns with the United Nations SDGs, particularly SDG 2: Zero Hunger. By advancing IoT-driven innovations and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, research can contribute to achieving sustainable and equitable food systems that leave no one behind.