Bunium persicum Boiss. Fedtsch., commonly referred to as black cumin or black caraway, is a lesser-known but significant medicinal, aromatic, and culinary spice belonging to the family Apiaceae. Native to Western Asia, this species is primarily found in the dry temperate regions of the Western Himalayan zone in India, where it is locally known as Kala Jeera. The high-altitude regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and the Almora hills of Uttarakhand are key centers for its cultivation in India [1, 2].

Among the prominent regions for B. persicum cultivation in the northwestern Himalayas, the Gurez valley, situated along the Indo-Pakistan border, is a major production area in Jammu and Kashmir. While B. persicum is a distinct species, variation in its cultivation methods and local nomenclature exists across different regions [3, 4].

In India, several related species or varieties of Bunium are recognized, including:

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B. persicum (Kala Jeera): The most commonly known and utilized species, particularly in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

These species share ecological niches but vary in their regional importance and applications in traditional medicine, as well as in the local agricultural practices surrounding their cultivation [5, 6].

In Uttarakhand, B. persicum is primarily cultivated in its typical form without any officially recognized distinct varieties [6]. Differences can be caused by environmental factors such as altitude, microclimate conditions, and soil type, these differences do not classify them as separate species. Due to its niche-specific characteristics, the state of Himachal Pradesh has granted B. persicum geographical indication (GI) protection under GI number 432, recognizing its unique geographical and botanical attributes (Table 1).

One of the major limitations to the commercial cultivation of B. persicum is its extended life cycle. The plant’s slow growth and long maturation period have deterred widespread farming, contributing to a decline in its cultivation. Consequently, the species is facing a concerning depletion in its natural habitats, leading to its inclusion in the list of endangered species [8, 9].

B. persicum is often mistakenly known as Nigella sativa or Carum carvi, however, it has been the focus of extensive phytochemical studies. The seed and fruit extracts of B. persicum have demonstrated a variety of bioactive properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic effects. This positions the plant as a potential natural antioxidant and preservative for application in various food systems [10, 11].

Although previous reviews have covered the medicinal properties of B. persicum, this review aims to provide a comprehensive, updated analysis of its morphological, biochemical, and molecular characteristics [12]. Additionally, it explores its phytochemical profile, novel food applications, and therapeutic potential, offering valuable insights for consumers, as well as the food and pharmaceutical industries. The review also highlights critical areas requiring policy intervention to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of this valuable species [13, 14].

B. persicum belongs to the family Apiaceae or Umbelliferae. Apiaceae family consists of 423 genera, which are herbs, shrubs, trees, and some aromatics. Bunium consist of 166 species. B. persicum is a perennial herbaceous geophyte that generally grows to a height of 30–40 cm [15]. This plant grows primarily in high-altitude regions and is a geophyte, meaning it stores nutrients in underground structures such as tubers, allowing it to survive harsh environmental conditions [16]. The stems are hollow between the nodes and house secretory vessels that produce oils and resins. The plant’s inflorescence, part of the Apiaceae family, consists of a single, convex, or flat-topped flower head. The roots and seeds are used as spices that provide flavor for the food. It is used in a way that gives taste to food. These brown fruits are round in shape and hot in taste [17].

B. persicum seeds are traditionally used in the treatment of digestive problems and urinary problems, and are well recognized in Iranian folk medicine for their diarrhea-relief, respiratory aid, anti-parasitic, and analgesic (anti-nociceptive) properties [18]. The fruits of B. persicum are also traditionally employed to treat flatulence, spasms, menstrual pain, and infections due to their antimicrobial effects. However, their use in pregnant women is strictly limited as they may induce abortion [19].

In Kashmir (India), B. persicum is used as an alternative to Carum carvi (Caraway), which is commonly used to treat menstrual disorders, anorexia, skin conditions, and leucorrhoea. The literature also highlights various therapeutic uses of its seeds, such as antispasmodic and anti-epileptic effects, as well as promoting lactation and lowering blood lipids and lipid levels [20, 21].

In the remote areas of Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand (India), B. persicum seeds are traditionally used to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and dysentery. Additionally, its fruits are considered effective in treating hematomas, dysuria, kidney stones, and hiccups, and are utilized for managing obesity and digestive issues [22]. The fruits are valued for their role as flavoring agents, galactagogues, carminatives, calmatives, and appetite stimulants (Table 2).

B. persicum presents a diverse and rich nutritional profile, making it an important food ingredient with potential health benefits. Its moderate carbohydrate content, essential fatty acids, mineral richness, and the presence of vital vitamins, amino acids, and fibers make it a valuable addition to a balanced diet. Regular consumption of black cumin could contribute to improved cardiovascular health, digestive function, immune response, and overall well-being, especially when used in conjunction with other healthy dietary habits [30–35].

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Carbohydrates (35–40%): B. persicum is moderately rich in carbohydrates, which contribute to its energy value. Carbohydrates found in black cumin consist of polysaccharides and simple sugars, which provide a quick source of energy, e.g., glucose, fructose.

Dietary fiber also has a prebiotic effect, fostering the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut, which in turn supports better digestion and nutrient absorption.

Bioactive compounds found in B. persicum contribute significantly to its medicinal and therapeutic properties. These compounds are responsible for various biological activities (Table 3) [36–39].

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Antioxidant activity: The seeds are rich in phenolic compounds and flavonoids, both of which are potent antioxidants. These compounds play a key role in scavenging free radicals, reducing oxidative stress, and preventing cellular damage caused by oxidative reactions. The high antioxidant activity makes black cumin a promising agent for preventing degenerative diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s.

Phenolic compounds such as quercetin, kaempferol, and other flavonoids are the major contributors to the antioxidant profile.

Recent GC-MS analyses have identified novel bioactive constituents in B. persicum EOs, such as dihydrocarvone and bornyl acetate, which show promising anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities [54].

The present review summarizes the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical composition, and medicinal properties of B. persicum. The traditional uses of its seeds, roots, and EOs are corroborated by modern scientific evidence, highlighting its therapeutic potential [54].

This plant is used in treating a wide range of conditions, including neurological disorders, gastrointestinal diseases, respiratory issues, cardiovascular dysfunctions, microbial infections, and urinary tract diseases.

Furthermore, its beneficial effects in diabetes management are supported by its antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, α-amylase inhibitory, and insulin secretion-enhancing activities. Advances in molecular studies have elucidated the mechanisms through which B. persicum compounds modulate inflammatory pathways and cellular oxidative stress [55].

Moreover, the integration of B. persicum into functional foods and nutraceuticals has been gaining traction due to its broad spectrum of health benefits. This dual role in enhancing food safety and delivering therapeutic benefits positions B. persicum as a valuable ingredient in the functional food industry.

The antimicrobial properties of B. persicum are driven by key secondary metabolites such as thymol and carvacrol. These terpenoids disrupt microbial cell membranes, leading to growth inhibition of pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. These findings align with the observed traditional use of B. persicum in treating infections and preserving food products. However, the variability in antimicrobial activity across different plant populations underscores the influence of environmental and genetic factors on phytochemical composition [56].

In a present study, the methanolic extracts of B. persicum were found to have 683 anti-inflammatory effects by blocking albumin denaturation that contributes to the 684-inflammation process [57]. The EO was obtained from leaves and its constituents were identified using GC-MS analysis. Then, the antifungal ability of the EO and its main constituents against Colletotrichum lindemuthianum was investigated using in vitro and in vivo assays. The effects of the EO and its main constituents on cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) activity such as pectinase, cellulase, and xylanase, as well as part of the mechanisms involved in the infection process of this fungus, were demonstrated. On the other hand, the anti-glycation potential of polyphenol-rich plant extracts has been shown previously and B. persicum has been demonstrated to possess a high level of polyphenols; so, B. persicum hydroalcoholic extract has a good effect on diabetic disease. Moreover, the abortive property might be due to estrogenic and uterine tonic activities.

Phenolic compounds, including caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid, are identified as key contributors to antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activities. Flavonoids are noted for their roles in providing antioxidant, anti-diabetic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antiulcerogenic effects. Additionally, terpenoids such as p-cymene and γ-terpinene demonstrate analgesic and antimicrobial properties. Cuminaldehyde is associated with various biological functions, while alkaloids exhibit potential anti-hemotoxic effects.

The selection of desired genotypic traits can enhance the efficiency and productivity of species while ensuring their preservation for future generations, particularly as human activities increasingly threaten overall genetic diversity [58].

Recent studies have identified promising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties in B. persicum, positioning it as a potential candidate for developing natural therapeutics. The plant’s bioactive compounds have shown efficacy in managing metabolic disorders, such as diabetes and hyperlipidemia, which are of growing concern in modern healthcare.

B. persicum is a highly valued spice and medicinal plant, recognized for its rich phytochemical composition and diverse bioactive properties. It holds significant promise in traditional and modern medicine, with applications ranging from antimicrobial to metabolic disorder management. Further research and sustainable cultivation practices are essential to preserve its therapeutic potential and promote its integration into functional foods and nutraceuticals.