The global food system is facing increasing pressure from population growth, urbanization, and climate change, while dairy consumption is projected to rise substantially in the coming decades [1, 2]. At the same time, growing health concerns about ultra-processed foods and industrial production methods have increased consumer interest in local, traditional, and artisanal food alternatives [3, 4]. Dairy products are an essential component of many diets, providing key nutrients, particularly calcium [5, 6], while also holding cultural and historical significance [7–9]. In Iran, dairy production includes both industrial and traditional systems, with consumption patterns varying considerably across regions [10, 11]. Guilan province, particularly its capital, Rasht—recognized as a UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy—offers a unique setting where local dairy products remain deeply rooted in culinary traditions but increasingly face competition from industrially produced alternatives [12, 13]. Traditional foods reflect a society’s history, culture, and way of life [14, 15]. In developing countries, local and family-run dairy enterprises contribute to poverty reduction and improved nutrition [16]. More recently, consumer interest in local and organic dairy products has increased, particularly among younger consumers and families with children [17].

Although local food systems have received considerable attention in academic literature, relatively few studies have specifically examined consumers’ purchase intention (PI) toward local dairy products [17, 18]. Dairy products are characterized by high perishability, which heightens consumer sensitivity to freshness and safety during transportation [19]. Furthermore, the consumption of local dairy is heavily influenced by distinctive sensory attributes—such as taste and texture—and functional values including quality [20–23]. Furthermore, although the theory of planned behavior (TPB) [24] has been widely applied to explain food choice behavior, the integration of culturally specific constructs, such as food heritage (FH) and perceptions of good food (GF), remains largely unexplored in the context of local dairy consumption [25, 26].

Specifically, research examining willingness to pay (WTP) as a mediator between attitudes and PI, as well as perceived necessity (PN) as a moderator, remains limited in the context of local dairy consumption in developing countries. Understanding these relationships is important because the sustainability of local food systems depends on the close interaction between production and consumption practices [15].

Concerns about the origin of food have become increasingly important, particularly in response to the environmental and social challenges associated with large-scale industrial agriculture [27]. As consumers become more aware of these issues, many are shifting toward local, organic, and healthier food alternatives. Reflecting this trend, the Slow Food movement promotes sustainability through the principle of “good, clean, and fair” food, emphasizing the preservation of local food cultures while encouraging environmentally and socially responsible production and consumption [28, 29]. Within this evolving food landscape, consumers’ purchasing decisions play a central role in shaping more sustainable and healthier food systems [30].

In recent years, numerous theories have been developed to explain food consumption behavior, drawing primarily from the fields of psychology, sociology, and economics. Other theoretical perspectives emphasize the role of marketing-related factors and external stimuli—such as advertising, product differentiation, packaging, product innovation, accessibility, product demonstrations, and direct selling—in shaping consumer behavior [31, 32].

According to Bratman [33], intention refers to the process of forming a plan for future action. It serves as a cognitive link between thought and behavior and is shaped by individuals’ beliefs, desires, practical reasoning, and mechanisms of perception and action. Building on this perspective, a review of the literature identifies several key factors that influence consumers’ propensity to purchase local agricultural products, including environmental attitudes (EA), perceptions of GF, FH, interpersonal influences (II), PN, attitudes toward local and traditional dairy products (ALDC), WTP for fair food, and PI. Among these factors, consumers’ perceptions of local and traditional dairy products play a particularly important role, as PI has been shown to be a strong predictor of actual purchasing and consumption behavior [23, 25, 34, 35].

To address these gaps, this study develops and empirically tests an extended theoretical model that integrates psychological, cultural, and economic determinants of consumers’ intentions to purchase local dairy products. Specifically, the study adapts the conceptual model proposed by Mohammadian and Bakhshandeh [25] for green product purchasing behavior, as it provides a comprehensive framework for examining the key factors that influence consumer decision-making. The original model identifies several important determinants of PI, including health consciousness [36, 37], EA, environmental knowledge [26, 38, 39], II [40], attitudes toward green product consumption, WTP [41], and PN as a moderating variable [26]. Building on this framework, the present study adapts these constructs to the context of local dairy products by incorporating culturally relevant dimensions, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of consumer behavior in this setting.

EA plays a crucial role in promoting innovations that further enhance the sustainability of food systems [39, 42]. Initiatives such as the Slow Food movement advocate the production and consumption of “clean food,” emphasizing environmentally responsible production methods [28, 36]. Research in green marketing has consistently shown that positive EA is associated with stronger PI and greater consumption of local and sustainable dairy products [25, 41, 43–45]. The Slow Food movement’s conceptualization of GF—defined as flavorful, diverse, and produced in ways that improve taste while mirroring local geography and culture—was utilized in the current investigation [28, 29, 46]. As discussed by Andrews [29], Michael Pollan’s interpretation of GF emphasizes nutritional value, food safety, and production practices but places relatively less emphasis on sensory qualities and food identity. In contrast, the Slow Food movement argues that food is “good” when it is flavorful, diverse, and produced using methods that preserve taste while expressing local geography and cultural identity [28]. This perspective distinguishes GF from a purely health-oriented concept by emphasizing sensory enjoyment, cultural authenticity, and sustainable production practices. In this study, consumers’ perceptions of GF are measured using five survey items: health concerns, personal responsibility for maintaining health, trust in the quality of local dairy products, the importance of taste, and preference for raw milk over powdered milk. Collectively, these indicators capture the multidimensional nature of the GF construct by reflecting health, quality, sensory experience, and cultural values.

Indigenous and local knowledge, transmitted across generations, has enabled communities to sustainably manage regional biological resources. These communities recognize biodiversity as a prerequisite for the continued availability and sustainable use of these resources [47]. Studies have shown that such knowledge not only contributes to biodiversity conservation but also helps protect traditional food resources, thereby enhancing food security [48, 49].

FH encompasses the history of origin, cultivation, processing, and distribution of plants and animals, as well as the culinary traditions and knowledge associated with them [50]. It also includes the cultural narratives and practices surrounding food [51]. Preserving and passing on culinary knowledge is therefore essential for maintaining cultural identity [52]. In this study, the term FH refers to both traditional food culture and culinary heritage.

II refers to the process of encouraging, persuading, or influencing others to achieve outcomes [26]. According to Social Cognitive Theory, II emerges through reciprocal interactions among individuals and between individuals and their social environment [26, 53]. This concept has become central to consumer behavior research, particularly in studies of social groups, social class, subcultures, status, and social norms [54]. Likewise, Kim and Eves [55] identified interpersonal relationships as important drivers of local food consumption, highlighting social belonging, family influence, and self-expression as key social and psychological motivations.

Researchers at the University of Western Australia proposed PN as a moderating variable in the relationship between consumers’ EA and their intention to purchase environmentally friendly products [26]. They argued that positive EA would have a stronger influence on PI when environmentally friendly products were perceived as necessary. Their findings supported this proposition, demonstrating that EA had a stronger effect on PI for products considered essential than for non-essential products, such as jewelry [26, 56, 57].

Consumers’ values are important determinants of attitudes toward organic and local products, which subsequently influence behavioral intentions [58]. Advocates of these products argue that they not only provide healthier alternatives but also contribute to environmental sustainability [43, 59, 60]. Moreover, many consumers prefer locally produced foods purchased directly from producers, reflecting a preference for shorter and more transparent supply chains [20, 34]. Governments and consumers alike increasingly recognize local food systems as an effective means of promoting economic development while providing sustainable alternatives to industrialized food production [20]. Empirical evidence further indicates that consumers’ attitudes significantly influence their intentions to purchase local, traditional, and organic products, both directly and indirectly through WTP [21, 61].

WTP is defined as the maximum amount of money a consumer is willing to pay for a good or service [62]. In the context of sustainable food systems, WTP is a key determinant of consumers’ intentions to purchase sustainable and locally produced dairy products [63, 64]. It also plays an important role in shaping production decisions, supply chains, market development, and research. Previous studies have shown that consumers are willing to pay a premium for higher-quality animal-based products, particularly those that are locally produced [65–67].

Moreover, concerns related to price fairness—including fair pricing, stronger producer-consumer relationships, and reduced exploitation by intermediaries—have increasingly influenced consumers’ purchasing and consumption behavior [36]. According to the TPB, attitude is a key predictor of PI, a relationship that has been consistently supported by empirical studies on food purchasing behavior [21, 57, 61, 68, 69]. Positive attitudes toward local products increase consumers’ likelihood of purchasing them. Furthermore, social norms can shape these attitudes and, consequently, influence consumers’ WTP [21]. Although large-scale dairy processors dominate milk production in many markets, small-scale local producers continue to play an important role by supplying fresh, locally sourced dairy products [70]. Consumers often prefer these products because they are perceived as handcrafted, locally produced, and more diverse. Promoting the consumption of local dairy products not only supports the livelihoods of local producers but also contributes to healthier diets and more sustainable food systems [21, 71].

This study has three primary objectives: (1) to identify the key factors shaping consumers’ attitudes toward local dairy products; (2) to examine the direct and indirect effects of these factors on PI; and (3) to investigate the mediating role of WTP in the relationship between attitudes and PI. Specifically, the study examines the factors influencing consumers’ preferences for local, traditional dairy products (Figure 1). This research makes three important contributions to literature. First, it extends the TPB by incorporating culturally relevant constructs—FH and perceptions of GF—that are particularly salient in gastronomic destinations such as Rasht. Second, it provides empirical evidence from the relatively underexplored context of urban Iran, offering valuable comparative insights for local food consumption research in developing countries. Third, the findings provide practical implications for local producers and policymakers seeking to strengthen sustainable food systems by emphasizing cultural identity and perceived product quality rather than competing primarily on price.

A better understanding of these relationships is essential for preserving traditional FH, supporting rural livelihoods, and promoting more sustainable consumption patterns amid ongoing dietary and lifestyle transitions.

The following hypotheses have been formulated:

Consumers’ EA has a significant correlation with their ALDC.

Food plays a multifaceted role in human life, shaped by both its biological functions and its cultural and social significance. Local foods reflect cultural identity, historical heritage, and traditional lifestyles [79]. This study investigates the factors influencing urban consumers’ intention to consume local and artisanal dairy products in Rasht, Iran. The findings provide valuable insights into consumer attitudes and behavioral intentions, offering practical implications for promoting local food consumption and supporting sustainable food systems.

This study extends the TPB [24] by incorporating cultural dimensions that have received limited attention in studies of local food consumption, particularly in developing countries. Specifically, FH and perceptions of GF are introduced as direct antecedents of attitudes toward local and artisanal dairy products. This addresses a research gap identified by Feldmann and Hamm [20] and Shin and Hancer [21], who emphasized the need for culturally grounded models to explain local food consumption. The findings demonstrate that these cultural constructs are not merely contextual factors but significant determinants of consumer attitudes. Among all the variables examined, perceptions of GF exerted the strongest positive effect on attitudes (β = 0.512, p < 0.01). This finding is particularly noteworthy in the context of Rasht, a UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy, where culinary traditions constitute a central element of local identity. Despite Rasht’s rich gastronomic heritage, empirical evidence linking this cultural capital to consumers’ intentions to purchase local and artisanal dairy products has remained limited.

Empirical evidence indicates that WTP serves as a mechanism linking attitudes to PI. Although previous research has examined WTP, it has predominantly treated it as a dependent outcome variable (e.g., [65, 67]). However, the present findings reveal that WTP functions as a partial mediator in this relationship. The standardized coefficient for this mediating path was 0.455, with a significance level of p < 0.01, underscoring the role of favorable attitudes in translating into behavioral responses. The indirect effect of attitudes on PI through WTP was calculated as 0.310 (i.e., 0.682 × 0.455), indicating that approximately 46% of the total effect of attitudes on PI is channeled via WTP. This suggests that consumers’ readiness to pay a premium constitutes a critical intermediary between cognitive evaluations and actual purchasing behavior. These findings contribute to the growing body of literature on sustainable food consumption by offering a more nuanced understanding of the psychological pathway from perceptions of cultural and quality attributes to consumer behavior [21, 80]. Furthermore, by focusing on an urban Iranian context—an underexplored setting in this domain—the present study provides a valuable comparative baseline for food consumption research in other developing countries. The proposed model demonstrated strong explanatory power, with an R² of 0.598 for PI and 0.631 for attitudes, substantially exceeding the explained variances reported in comparable studies, such as those by Mohammadian and Bakhshandeh [25] and Cheah and Phau [26]. These results suggest that the incorporation of culturally specific constructs enhances the predictive accuracy of consumer behavior models in culturally rich settings. This corroborates the assertions of Vermeulen et al. [3] and Chedid et al. [15], who emphasized that psychological models cannot be uniformly applied across contexts without appropriate cultural adaptation.

The descriptive findings revealed generally positive evaluations across all study constructs, including EA, health consciousness, FH, II, PN, attitudes toward local dairy products, WTP, and PI. Among these, attitudes toward local and artisanal dairy products received the highest mean score, reflecting their strong cultural significance and perceived quality [23, 81]. In contrast, WTP recorded a comparatively lower mean, suggesting that price remains an important consideration in consumers’ purchasing decisions.

The structural model further demonstrated that health consciousness and FH exerted significant positive effects on consumers’ attitudes toward local and artisanal dairy products, consistent with the findings of previous studies [25, 39, 82]. By contrast, II did not have a significant effect, indicating that consumers’ purchasing decisions in this context are driven more by personal values and beliefs than by social pressure or the opinions of others [83].

Consistent with previous research, attitudes toward environmentally friendly products significantly influence both PI and WTP [25, 26]. However, unlike earlier studies that identified PN as an important determinant or moderating factor [26, 56], the present study found no significant relationship between PN and consumers’ attitudes or behavioral intentions.

The structural equation model demonstrated strong explanatory power. Specifically, perceptions of GF and FH together explained approximately 63% of the variance in attitudes toward local and artisanal dairy products. In turn, attitudes accounted for approximately 47% of the variance in PI, while attitudes and PI jointly explained approximately 60% of the variance in consumers’ intention to consume local dairy products. These findings underscore the importance of considering the interplay of cultural, social, and personal factors in explaining consumer behavior toward local and artisanal foods [84].

The results further indicate that cultural identity, traditional knowledge, and environmental awareness—reflecting consumers’ connections to local FH—are important drivers of positive attitudes toward local dairy products. Despite the increasing prevalence of industrial food products, consumers appear to maintain strong cognitive and emotional ties to traditional food culture [85]. This connection is often mediated by the alignment between a consumer’s self-image and the cultural meaning embedded in local products [86]. Evidence suggests that health, quality, and taste values significantly bolster positive attitudes toward local dairy consumption [23].

The gap between positive attitudes and the continued dominance of industrial dairy products may be explained by several structural and market-related barriers. First, the limited availability of local dairy products restricts consumer access, as these products are primarily sold through traditional or specialized outlets rather than mainstream retail chains. Second, price remains a key consideration, with industrial dairy products generally being more affordable and therefore more accessible to a wider range of consumers [87]. Third, the lack of standardized production practices, quality certification, and professional packaging may reduce consumer confidence in local dairy products compared with industrial brands that benefit from established quality assurance systems and recognizable packaging [88].

Consumers demonstrated a high level of health consciousness, with a mean score of 3.80 out of 5, which was significantly associated with positive attitudes toward local and artisanal dairy products [23]. This finding suggests that consumers value these products not only for their distinctive taste but also for their perceived nutritional and health benefits. Respondents also expressed a strong sense of personal responsibility for maintaining a healthy diet and reported greater trust in traditional local production methods. These results indicate that health-related and cultural values can partially offset structural barriers to the consumption of local dairy products. Consequently, there is considerable market potential for local and artisanal dairy products, provided that challenges related to product availability, affordability, quality assurance, and standardization are effectively addressed.

Attitude emerged as a central psychological construct, exerting a significant influence on both WTP and PI. The relationship between attitude and WTP was notably stronger than that between attitude and PI. This suggests that although favorable attitudes increase consumers’ readiness to pay a premium, they are less directly translated into actual purchasing behavior. These results are consistent with prior research indicating that WTP often functions as a mediating mechanism between attitude and behavior [80].

The comparatively weaker relationship between attitude and PI underscores the multifaceted nature of consumer behavior. Although attitude remains a key determinant, factors such as price sensitivity, product availability, and social norms are likely to contribute to the intention-behavior gap [24]. Accordingly, interventions that focus exclusively on changing attitudes may be insufficient unless they are complemented by strategies that address these contextual and structural constraints. Future research should further examine these moderating and mediating factors to develop more comprehensive behavioral models that better explain and promote local dairy consumption.

Considering existing barriers, the robust appeal of local products and consumers’ WTP a premium present significant opportunity for policymakers to bolster local dairy production and distribution, thereby enhancing public health, fostering job creation, and stimulating rural economic growth.

In conclusion, this study seeks to identify the factors influencing consumer attitudes toward traditional dairy products, with the broader aim of promoting their purchase and utilization. It examines the key determinants of attitudes and PI while assessing their explanatory effectiveness. The analysis also considers the distinctive characteristics of local products in evaluating the relationship between consumer attitudes and PI, both directly and through mediating or moderating effects. The findings indicate that health awareness has a positive and significant effect on attitudes toward both dairy and local products. Concerns regarding the adverse health impacts of environmental pollution, along with the high costs associated with treating related illnesses—often highlighted in public health discourse—have increased consumers’ awareness of the importance of safeguarding personal health. Given the strong influence of health awareness on consumer attitudes, integrating health awareness into school curricula is recommended. Both general and specialized courses should be developed to enhance awareness, and similar initiatives should be extended to workplaces, governmental bodies, and other institutions. The results further indicate that WTP acts as a mediating factor in the relationship between consumer attitudes and PI. Emphasizing the environmental sustainability of local products, as well as the ethical, charitable, and cultural values associated with their consumption, may enhance consumers’ WTP. Highlighting ecological benefits rather than purely material considerations can increase urban consumers’ readiness to pay a premium, thereby supporting broader environmental sustainability goals.

Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, although convenience sampling was appropriate for the exploratory nature of this research, it may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of Rasht or other Iranian cities. While efforts were made to enhance sample diversity through the random selection of dairy stores and data collection across different locations and times, the sample may not fully reflect the demographic diversity of the target population. In particular, consumers who rarely purchase dairy products from retail outlets or who primarily rely on home-produced dairy products were not represented. Future research should employ probability-based sampling methods, such as stratified random sampling, to improve external validity and support stronger population-level inferences. Second, the study was conducted exclusively in Rasht, a city with a distinctive gastronomic heritage and cultural identity. Consumers in this setting may exhibit stronger preferences for local foods than those in other regions of Iran or in different countries. Consequently, the findings should be generalized to other geographical contexts with caution. Third, the cross-sectional design of the study precludes the establishment of causal relationships among the variables. Future longitudinal research would help verify the direction of the observed relationships and examine how consumers’ attitudes and PI change over time. Fourth, although the measurement model demonstrated acceptable levels of reliability and validity overall, the relatively low Cronbach’s alpha for the GF construct (0.583) indicates that this multidimensional construct could be measured more effectively. In particular, the removal of items with low factor loadings may have reduced the breadth of the construct. Future studies should refine and expand the measurement scale to better capture the multiple dimensions of consumers’ perceptions of GF. Finally, the PN construct, which was initially included based on the framework proposed by Cheah and Phau [26], demonstrated poor internal consistency in the present study (Cronbach’s alpha = –0.122) and was therefore excluded from the final model. This finding suggests that the concept of PN may be influenced by cultural and contextual factors and that measurement items developed in Western settings may not be directly applicable to the Iranian context of local food consumption. Future research should develop and validate context-specific measures of PN to better capture this construct in studies of local food consumption in developing countries.