The three Alternanthera species cited in the selected reports, Alternanthera brasiliana (L.) Kuntze (“Benzetacil”), A. dentata (Moench) Stuchlík ex R.E. Fr. (“penicilina”), and A. ramosissima (Mart.) Chodat (“ampicilina”) are native species reported for the treatment of skin conditions, mainly using their leaves [18, 22, 28–31]. An experimental study in Wistar rats supports the wound-healing potential of A. brasiliana, as the topical application of a 20% hydroalcoholic leaf extract incorporated into a 2% carbopol gel significantly accelerated re-epithelialization and collagen deposition when compared to vehicle control. Despite this healing activity, the same extract exhibited a relatively high MIC value (2,000 µg/mL) against S. aureus [35]. Similar healing effects were reported with a 5% (w/w) ointment containing the methanolic leaf extract [36]. Regarding antibacterial activity, the most significant effect was observed against Mycobacterium smegmatis, with an MIC of 15.6 µg/mL [37].

Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (Chenopodium ambrosioides syn.) is native to Central and South America. All parts of this plant, popularly known in Brazil as “erva-de-santa-maria” or “mastruz”, are traditionally used to treat skin conditions such as burns and bruises, as well as for wound healing, in the Central-Western, Northeastern, and Southeastern regions [1, 18, 20, 22, 28]. In rat excisional wound models, topical application of C. ambrosioides extracts accelerated wound contraction and tissue repair. Ethanolic extracts (1–5%) reduced lesion area at later healing stages [38], while an aqueous leaf extract promoted faster early wound contraction and improved granulation tissue organization and partial re-epithelialization [39], supporting the traditional use of this species in skin wound care.

Beyond its direct effects on tissue repair, antibacterial activity may contribute to the healing process by reducing microbial burden at the wound site. In this context, the hydroethanolic leaf extract inhibits Helicobacter pylori (MIC 200 µg/mL) [40], while the essential oil from aerial parts exhibits broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against wound-associated pathogens, including MDR strains such as S. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii, with MICs ranging from 90 to 230 µg/mL. Its chemical composition is predominantly monoterpenes (60.75%), with α-cyclogeraniol acetate among the main constituents [41].

The species Anacardium humile A. St.-Hil. and A. occidentale L. are native to Brazil, with A. occidentale being widely used in several regions for wound healing [3, 17–19, 22, 26, 27, 30]. Experimental evidence supports this traditional use, as topical application of hydroalcoholic leaf extracts of A. occidentale (1–2%) promoted wound healing in rat models, enhancing wound contraction and collagen deposition compared with control groups [42, 43].

In parallel, organic extracts from Anacardium species have demonstrated relevant antibacterial activity. Different parts of A. occidentale exhibit consistent antibacterial effects, with MIC values below 350 µg/mL. Methanolic extracts of the root bark inhibited both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, P. aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli, with MICs ranging from 10 to 40 µg/mL [44]. Ethanolic leaf extracts showed moderate to high activity against multiple bacterial strains (MIC 12.5–50 µg/mL) [45], while acetone extracts from nuts exhibited remarkable potency against S. aureus (MIC 0.00188–0.00375 µg/mL) [46]. In addition, acetone leaf extracts were active against Mycoplasma mycoides (MIC 310 µg/mL) [47], and hexane and methanolic extracts from aerial parts inhibited S. aureus and E. faecalis, with lower MICs observed for methanolic preparations [48].

Although less extensively studied, A. humile also exhibits antibacterial potential. Ethanolic leaf extracts inhibited the growth of S. aureus (MIC 4.1 µg/mL) and P. aeruginosa (MIC 8.2 µg/mL) [49], while tannins obtained from acetone extracts showed activity against P. aeruginosa (MIC 4.1 µg/mL) and E. faecalis (MIC 2 µg/mL) [50].

Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (Anacardiaceae), popularly known as “aroeira-do-sertão”, “aroeira-preta”, or “aroeira-do-campo”, is traditionally used to treat skin injuries, wounds, and furuncles, mainly in Northeastern Brazil [3, 17–19, 22, 26]. Experimental evidence supports this traditional use, as a carbopol gel containing stem bark extract promoted greater wound contraction and collagen formation after 14 days in an excisional wound healing model in rats [51]. Similarly, a 10% cream prepared from a stem bark decoction reduced wound area and increased collagen deposition in excisional skin wounds of male Wistar rats, demonstrating efficacy in the wound repair process [52].

In addition, antibacterial effects of M. urundeuva are associated with ethanolic extracts and essential oils from the leaves, which inhibited Gram-positive and Gram-negative wound-associated pathogens, including S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and P. aeruginosa, with MIC values ranging from 4.1 to 220 µg/mL [49, 53].

Two species of the genus Schinus were reported in association with the treatment of wounds and skin disorders from selected ethnobotanical studies. Schinus molle L., a native species and known as the pepper tree (“periquiteira”), showed use in the Southern region, with flowers employed for wound treatment [30]. Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (“aroeira-rosa”), also native, presented a higher number of records and a broader range of uses, involving different plant parts and indications such as wounds, furuncles, and skin conditions across distinct regions of the country [18, 22, 28, 29].

The aqueous extract of S. molle L. aerial parts, incorporated into a 5% hydrogel formulation, increased wound closure rates in Wistar rats, promoting re-epithelialization, fibrosis, and neovascularization in the regenerated epidermal and subepidermal tissue. Although the same extract was tested against six microorganisms, including S. aureus and S. epidermidis, antibacterial activity was observed only against Citrobacter freundii and E. faecalis (MIC 1,560 µg/mL), a concentration comparable to gentamicin but considered high in broth microdilution assays [54]. In another study, methanolic extracts from leaves, bark, and flowers were active against S. aureus (MIC 62.5–250 µg/mL) [55]. Hexane extracts from fruits inhibited M. tuberculosis (MIC 125 µg/mL), while extracts from flowers, bark, and fruits were active against Streptococcus pneumoniae (MIC 62.5–250 µg/mL) [56]. Altogether, these findings highlight the antimicrobial potential of S. molle, with bioactive compounds distributed across extracts of different polarities.

Earlier experimental evidence indicates that not all preparations of S. terebinthifolius promote wound repair. In a rat excisional wound model, topical application of a hydroalcoholic bark extract delayed re-epithelialization and resulted in larger wound areas compared with saline-treated controls, despite increased mononuclear cell infiltration at later stages [57]. In contrast, in a murine model of S. aureus—infected wounds, topical administration of an N-acetylglucosamine-binding lectin isolated from S. terebinthifolius leaves at concentrations of 32 and 64 µg/mL accelerated wound healing and reduced inflammatory markers, including IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [58]. Likewise, the leaf essential oil demonstrated wound-healing activity in excisional wound models, promoting faster lesion closure through modulation of inflammation, angiogenesis, and collagen deposition [59].

Previously, Nunes et al. [58] showed that the lectin isolated from S. terebinthifolius leaves exhibited in vivo antimicrobial activity in a murine model of S. aureus—infected wounds, with a dose-dependent reduction in bacterial load and infection severity, accompanied by decreased exudate formation and local inflammation. Beyond these protein-based preparations, the ethanolic leaf extract inhibited Acinetobacter baumannii, showing 80% growth inhibition at 256 µg/mL, and bioassay-guided fractionation led to the isolation of pentagalloyl glucose. This compound displayed antibacterial activity, likely mediated by iron chelation, inhibiting both carbapenem-resistant and susceptible A. baumannii (MIC 64–256 µg/mL), as well as P. aeruginosa (MIC 16 µg/mL) and S. aureus (MIC 64 µg/mL) [60].

The three Himatanthus species cited in ethnobotanical surveys are native and widely used in Northeastern, Northern, and Central-Western Brazil, particularly through latex and leaf preparations, reflecting a consistent cultural association with wound care across regions [19, 22, 27, 34]. This convergence suggests that wound-healing applications may represent a traditional pharmacological signature of the genus.

Several studies consistently reinforce the traditional wound-healing use of Himatanthus species. In Himatanthus drasticus (Mart.) Plumel (“sucuúba” or “janaguba”), both latex- and leaf-based preparations accelerated wound closure and enhanced fibroblast activity in murine models. Ointments containing 2% soluble latex proteins promoted complete re-epithelialization within 14 days and increased fibroblast density [61], while ethanolic leaf extracts at 50–100 mg/kg similarly improved lesion reduction and collagen deposition after 21 days [62]. Himatanthus sucuuba (Spruce ex Müll. Arg.) latex also showed reproducible regenerative effects, as twice-daily topical application for 10 days stimulated wound healing, and phytochemical profiling revealed 24 constituents, mainly flavonoids, supporting its bioactive potential [63]. Complementary findings from a 15-day treatment with H. sucuuba latex demonstrated early epithelialization, reduced inflammation, and increased collagen deposition and fibroblast abundance compared with zinc oxide cream [64]. Likewise, the ethanolic leaf extract of H. obovatus (Müll. Arg.) Woodson formulated in carbopol gel reduced lesion size and increased collagen content and fibroblast levels by day 21 [62].

Regarding antibacterial activity, only H. sucuuba has demonstrated meaningful inhibition of clinically relevant bacteria in broth microdilution assays. The aqueous latex fraction inhibited Staphylococcus species, including S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and Staphylococcus haemolyticus, at 350 µg/mL [65], whereas gallic acid isolated from this fraction showed markedly greater potency (MIC 31 µg/mL against S. aureus and S. epidermidis). Earlier studies of the methanolic root extract led to the isolation of the iridoids allamandin and plumericin, which exhibited broader antibacterial activity, with MICs ranging from 10 to 40 µg/mL against S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli [66]. Collectively, these findings indicate that H. sucuuba may contribute to its traditional use in infected or inflamed wounds.

The species of the genus Aloe recorded in ethnobotanical surveys, all exotic, are also mentioned for the care of burns, infections, and cleansing, with a predominance of leaf use. Aloe arborescens Mill. is associated with wound and burn care in the Southern region [32]. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (synonym Aloe barbadensis Mill.) accounts for a total of nine ethnobotanical records, distributed across the Central-Western, Northeastern, Southeastern, and Southern regions of Brazil [1, 3, 19, 22, 23, 25, 26, 31, 33].

In vivo studies demonstrate that preparations obtained from the leaves of Aloe arborescens, when applied topically, exhibit relevant wound-healing activity in Wistar rats, both in models of third-degree burns and surgical wounds [67, 68]. Consistently, these studies indicate promotion of re-epithelialization, acceleration of wound closure, increased angiogenesis, and improved organization of collagen fibers during the tissue repair process. Extracts prepared using a dichloromethane: methanol (1:1) mixture, as well as acetone leaf extracts, demonstrated activity against H. pylori, with MIC values ranging from 130 to 250 µg/mL [69, 70], and against different enteric and Gram-positive pathogens, notably S. aureus (MIC 18 µg/mL) and Shigella flexneri (MIC 18 µg/mL) [71]. Additionally, alcoholic leaf extracts exhibited relevant antibacterial activity against S. aureus (MIC 70 µg/mL) and E. faecalis (MIC 140 µg/mL) [72].

Although several systematic reviews and meta-analyses have evaluated the efficacy of A. vera in wound healing among patients with second-degree burns [73], no meta-analyses specifically addressing the healing of non-burn cutaneous wounds were identified. In contrast, evidence from veterinary clinical studies indicates that the topical application of A. vera leaf gel in dogs and cats accelerates wound shrinkage, reduces healing time, and decreases lesion severity when compared with silver sulfadiazine [74].

Based on the selected studies, simple preparations obtained from the leaf gel and ethanolic extracts of Aloe vera showed antibacterial activity against oral pathogens, including Streptococcus mutans, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Porphyromonas gingivalis, as well as against representative Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with MIC values generally below 60 µg/mL [75]. Notably, activity was also reported against multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa and Bacillus isolates, with most of which were inhibited at concentrations ≤ 200 µg/mL [76, 77].

Calendula officinalis L., an exotic species, appears in four ethnobotanical records associated with the treatment of skin lesions, burns, and scarring, with predominant use of the flowers across Northeastern, Southeastern, and Southern Brazil [19, 23, 31, 33].

The wound-healing activity of C. officinalis has been demonstrated in both clinical and experimental models. In a clinical trial involving patients with acute traumatic wounds healing by secondary intention, the topical application of a standardized 2% extract prepared from the flowers of C. officinalis significantly increased the rate of wound closure and reduced the time to complete epithelialization [78]. Complementarily, the oral administration of capsules containing 2 g of C. officinalis extract, also derived from the flowers of the species, for 14 days in patients with second-degree burns, resulted in significantly greater improvements in wound-healing scores compared with placebo [79].

Although several studies report antibacterial activity for C. officinalis, including investigations targeting periodontal pathogens [80], only the study by Larçin et al. [81] presented MIC values within the range established in this review. In that study, the methanolic flower extract exhibited an MIC of 256 µg/mL against Erwinia amylovora, a Gram-negative bacterium responsible for fire blight in apples and pears. The authors identified chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, and salicylic acid as constituents common to both methanolic and aqueous flower extracts, with the higher relative amount of rutin in the methanolic extract correlating with its greater antibacterial activity.

Ethnobotanical studies indicate that Symphytum officinale L., an exotic species in Brazil and popularly known as confrei, is mentioned in seven surveys conducted across the Central-Western, Southeastern, Northeastern, and Southern regions of the country. The leaf is the most frequently used plant part, and the species is even reported for the treatment of infected wounds [3, 22, 23, 30, 31, 33, 34].

Preclinical studies in animal models and humans demonstrate that extracts of S. officinale accelerate wound healing through modulation of inflammatory infiltrate, significant enhancement of collagen deposition [82], and improved tissue organization associated with antioxidant activity [83]. In humans, standardized creams containing 10% of the aerial-part extract reduced abrasion healing time by nearly 3 days [84]. A more recent study using creams prepared with an ethanolic root extract (10% and 20%) accelerated regeneration in Wistar rats and identified polyphenolic compounds by LC-ESI⁺-MS analysis, such as salvianolic acids, rosmarinic acid, and caffeic acid, in addition to quantifying allantoin. The extract demonstrated antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; however, the MIC values reported were comparatively high, ranging from 765.38 to 6,123.01 µg/mL [85]. These findings are consistent with the limited number of studies reporting pronounced antibacterial activity for S. officinale. Although Thibane et al. [86] described lower MIC values, 98 µg/mL for methanolic and aqueous leaf extracts against E. coli, such results appear uncommon in the available literature and should be interpreted with caution until more comprehensive searches are undertaken.

Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. ex Reissek (syn. M. officinalis) and Maytenus rigida Mart., known respectively as “Espinheira-santa” [87] and “Bom-nome” [26], are native Brazilian species traditionally used for wound healing, particularly their leaves and stem barks [24, 25, 30]. Maytenus ilicifolia (syn. Maytenus officinalis) and Maytenus rigida Mart., known respectively as “espinheira-santa” [87] and “bom-nome” [26], are native Brazilian species traditionally used in wound healing, particularly through leaf and stem bark preparations [25, 26, 31]. Topical application of a hydroalcoholic leaf extract of M. ilicifolia, rich in phenolic compounds and tannins, accelerated skin wound closure in BALB/c mice at a 4% concentration, using 100 mg of ointment per wound after 3 and 7 days of treatment [88]. In addition, the polar methanolic leaf extract inhibited B. cereus (MIC 156 µg/mL) [87]. In contrast, experimental evaluation of the ethanolic bark extract of M. rigida in a rat excisional wound model did not demonstrate significant wound-healing or anti-inflammatory effects, indicating that cicatrizing activity may depend on species, plant part, or preparation method [89]. Despite these findings, antibacterial activity reported for both species against pathogens relevant to wound infections generally involved high MIC values, frequently exceeding 1,000 µg/mL [90, 91].

In this review, four Croton species emerged as being associated with skin problems: Croton heliotropiifolius Kunth [23, 31], Croton salutaris Casar. [1], Croton urucurana [22, 23] and Croton zehntneri Pax & K. Hoffm. [32] are used in different Brazilian regions for wound healing, skin cleansing, and the treatment of furuncles, with applications involving especially latex.

Experimental studies support the wound-healing properties traditionally attributed to Croton species as medicinal agents. Topical application of a formulation containing 20% essential oil from C. zehntneri leaves enhanced wound closure in mice by increasing fibroblast activity, angiogenesis, and collagen deposition, an effect largely attributed to its major constituent trans-anethole [92]. The ethanolic extract of C. urucurana stem bark also displays consistent regenerative effects: ointments containing 5–10% extract accelerated healing in IL-10 knockout mice, promoting fibroblast proliferation, neovascularization, and deposition of type I/III collagen [93]. In a complementary venom-induced injury model in Swiss mice, higher concentrations of the stem bark ethanolic extract (10, 20, and 40%) markedly increased lesion contraction and led to early re-epithelialization and granulation tissue formation, further confirming its pro-angiogenic and fibroblast-stimulating activity [94].

Among the evaluated species, the essential oil from aerial parts of C. heliotropiifolius was tested against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains; however, it exhibited antibacterial activity only against B. cereus, with a MIC of 62.5 µg/mL [95]. The ethanolic leaf extract of C. zehntneri inhibits S. aureus with a MIC of 64 µg/mL, reinforcing the traditional use of this species and the presence of phenolic metabolites, such as tannins and flavonoids, associated with antibacterial activity [96]. Its essential oil has high content of the monoterpenoid estragole (≥ 80%), which inhibits E. coli, S. aureus, Streptococcus β-haemolyticus, and S. flexneri, with MIC values below 50 µg/mL [97]. In contrast, C. urucurana exhibited a broader spectrum of action. The fresh latex, as well as the 75% ethanolic and chloroform extracts of the stem bark, showed activity against various clinically important bacteria, with MICs ranging from 125 to 250 µg/mL, including P. aeruginosa and different Staphylococcus species [98]. A recent study demonstrates the antibiofilm activity of the hexane extract, and the isolated compound α-costol from the species [99]. On the other hand, no antibacterial activity has been identified for C. salutaris.

Two native Brazilian species of Anadenanthera, Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan and Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Speg., and their respective varieties (Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil and Anadenanthera peregrina var. falcata) were associated with skin care and wound healing. The stem bark, particularly the inner bark, was the most frequently used plant part, although roots and resin were also reported for A. peregrina. Most citations were concentrated in the Central-West region, with only one additional record from the Northeast [1, 22, 26].

The 5% ethanolic bark extract of A. colubrina shows evidence of wound-healing activity in an animal model by topical application, with increased collagen deposition in the lesions, neutrophil infiltration, enhanced macrophage infiltration, and elevated IL-10 levels [100, 101]. The strongest evidence for the genus comes from studies demonstrating anti-S. aureus activity. The crude ethyl acetate extract from the leaves of A. colubrina var. cebil showed an IN₅₀ of 312.5 µg/mL, and two of its isolated constituents, hyperoside and proanthocyanidin, displayed even stronger activity, with values of 62.5 µg/mL [102]. In addition, the aqueous leaf extract of A. peregrina also exhibited activity against S. aureus, with a MIC of 310 µg/mL [103].

The only species cited was Caesalpinia ferrea C. Mart., a native Brazilian species popularly known as “jucá or pau-ferro”, whose bark, fruits, and seeds are traditionally used in the Central-Western and Northeastern regions of the country [3, 22, 26]. Experimental studies consistently demonstrate that topical treatment with different preparations of C. ferrea, including a 12.5% ethanolic fruit extract [104], 24% pod powder [105], bark extracts and bark powder mixed with petrolatum (1:2, w/w) [106], as well as bark and pod extracts enriched with 0.1% polysaccharides (also reported as Libidibia ferrea), accelerates wound closure, reduces inflammation, and enhances collagen deposition and fibroblast proliferation in goat, rabbit, and Wistar rat wound models [107, 108].

In the study using an ointment prepared with bark mixed into petroleum jelly, the microbiological analysis performed on day 14 revealed the absence of S. aureus in comparison to the control group [105], suggesting activity against S. aureus. Consistently, methanolic and ethanolic extracts from fruits or pods showed activity against oral and clinically important bacteria, including S. mutans and E. faecalis, with MIC values within the 40–125 µg/mL range [109–111].

The Copaifera species cited for wound treatment are native. Copaifera cearensis Huber ex Ducke (“copaíba”) is used in the Northeastern region for healing wounds [3], while Copaifera langsdorffii Desf. (“copaíba or “pau-d´oleo, podoi”) shows more diverse uses, including erysipelas, with different plant parts employed in the Northeastern [20] and Central-Western regions [22, 26]. Copaifera multijuga Hayne (“copaíba”), recorded in the Northern region [27], is mentioned as a skin healer based on the stem bark and stem oil.

Both C. langsdorffii oleoresin (4%) [112] and hydroalcoholic extract 10% of the leaves and 10% oleo-resin creams [113] demonstrate a beneficial effect on wound healing in Wistar rats, with the latter preparation demonstrating an anti-inflammatory activity boost in reepithelialization, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and extracellular matrix remodeling. Subsequently, both the 10% hydroalcoholic extract and the 10% oil-resin creams exhibited wound-healing potential in horse skin wounds after 14 days [114]. In addition, the carbopol gel containing 1% C. langsdorffii accelerated wound healing in BALB/c mice [115]. In contrast, although the oleoresin of C. multijuga contributed positively to second-intention skin wound healing in Wistar rats, it was less effective than the reference agent (nitrofurazone) [116]. Nevertheless, a double-blind, randomized, and controlled clinical trial using a commercial formulation based on C. multijuga (CopaibaPolyHy-2) demonstrated significantly faster healing time, increased granulation and epithelial tissue formation, and reduced exudate [117].

The antimicrobial evidence for C. langsdorffii includes relevant activity of trunk oleoresin (MIC 200 and 125 µg/mL, respectively) [118, 119] and the ethyl acetate leaf extract (MIC 32 µg/mL) against S. aureus [120]. Furthermore, the trunk oleoresins, including those for C. multijuga, demonstrated efficacy against M. tuberculosis, with MIC values ranging from 62.5 to 250 µg/mL [121]. These findings, together with studies reporting the isolation of diterpenes from the species with activity against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and M. tuberculosis, reinforce its broad antimicrobial potential, particularly against clinically relevant pathogens [122–124].

Hymenaea courbaril L., a native species popularly known as “jatobá” in Brazil, is traditionally used in the Northeast, where fruits, stem bark, and inner bark are applied for wound care [21, 26], and in the Center-West, where the resin is also employed alongside the bark [22]. The species’ sap accelerated wound closure, promoting fibroblast proliferation and migration and re-epithelialization by day 14 [125]. Additionally, seed-derived xyloglucan enhanced wound healing in diabetic mice by advancing re-epithelialization, improving dermal organization, and increasing type I collagen deposition [126].

The methanolic extract of the leaves exhibited substantially higher potency, with an MIC of only 16 µg/mL against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa [127]. For the stem bark, both methanolic and hexane extracts showed MIC values of 200 µg/mL against M. tuberculosis, while the hexane and dichloromethane extracts presented values ranging from 25–200 µg/mL [128]. In addition, the essential oil extracted from the fruit peels exhibited MIC values around 200 µg/mL [129]. In contrast, the hydroalcoholic extracts of the bark and starchy pulp of H. courbaril fruits exhibited moderate antibacterial activity, with MIC values of 350 µg/mL against S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa [130]. Notably, during wound-healing assays with seed-derived xyloglucan, microbiological evaluation showed no contamination of the wound area throughout the 12-day treatment period, suggesting a protective antimicrobial effect in the wound environment [126].

Stryphnodendron adstringens (Mart.) Coville, frequently referred to by its synonym Stryphnodendron barbatiman, is a native plant cited across three different regions of Brazil for the treatment of skin problems, particularly using its bark [1, 3, 18, 22, 23, 26, 28].

Multiple studies consistently demonstrate that bark extracts of S. adstringens exert a range of effects related to tissue repair in Wistar rat models, regardless of the extraction solvent employed. These include aqueous crude extracts formulated as gels [131], hydroethanolic extracts incorporated into 5% gels [132], ethyl acetate fractions obtained from acetone:water (7:3) extracts formulated as ointments or 1% gels [133, 134], and standardized formulations such as the 50% dry extract Fitoscar™ [135]. Overall, the findings indicate mechanisms that act concomitantly on the inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling phases of wound healing, including enhanced migration of fibroblasts, stimulation of angiogenesis, and increased collagen deposition. Notably, a high concentration of proanthocyanidins was identified by mass spectrometry in the acetone:water (7:3) extract, compounds known to modulate oxidative pathways, stimulate fibroblasts, and regulate key angiogenic proteins such as VEGF [133]. In contrast, the hydroalcoholic extract was shown to be rich in phenolic constituents such as tannins and flavonoids, including gallic acid, caffeic acid, and rutin, all recognized for their anti-inflammatory potential [132].

Different preparations obtained from the bark demonstrated relevant antibacterial activity, especially against Staphylococcus spp. and bacteria associated with oral infections. The aqueous and ethanolic bark extracts showed expressive activity against pathogens such as S. aureus, S. mutans, and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, with MIC values below 60 µg/mL [136]. Subsequently, a similar potency was demonstrated in the work of Cruz et al. [137] for both the hydroalcoholic extracts of bark and leaves. On the other hand, the ethanolic bark extract and the acetone/water (7:3) bark extract, as well as the aqueous and ethyl acetate fractions obtained from the acetone/water extract, inhibited S. aureus with MIC values between 125 and 250 µg/mL [138, 139].

Among the four Sida species referenced for skin treatment, all are native and recorded in the Southeastern and Northeastern regions of Brazil, with predominant use of the leaves. Two of them, Sida planicaulis Cav. and Sida rhombifolia L., are traditionally employed for the treatment of furuncles [18, 20].

For S. cordifolia L., the 10% methanolic extract of the aerial parts in hydrogel improved wound contraction, collagen deposition, tensile strength, and epithelialization in diabetic Wistar rats, whereas the 10% ethanolic whole-plant ointment produced similar effects in excision, incision, and burn wound models [140, 141]. For S. rhombifolia, ointments containing ethanolic extract at 25–50% and the aqueous preparation of the leaves, applied directly, also accelerated wound healing and induced marked fibrosis and collagenization in mice [142].

The ethanol extract of S. cordifolia leaves showed antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, with a MIC of 98 µg/mL [143]. In contrast, for Sida rhombifolia, the methanol extract of the aerial parts displayed weak activity (> 500 µg/mL), and only the enriched ethyl acetate fraction demonstrated lower MIC values, such as 64 µg/mL [144]. Agar-diffusion assays reported for S. rhombifolia suggest a preliminary antibacterial trend that deserves further investigation using standardized microdilution assays; however, such findings must be interpreted cautiously given the methodological limitations inherent to diffusion-based methods [145].

P. guajava L. (Myrtaceae) is widely distributed worldwide, and in Brazil, leaves, bark, and shoots are used to treat skin lesions and wound healing [17, 19, 22, 23]. An emulgel formulation with 1% of guava leaf oil, containing D-limonene, β-caryophyllene, and 1,8-cineole, enhanced wound healing in nondiabetic and diabetic Male Wistar rats. It promoted the production of collagen type I and increased superoxide dismutase, and a decrease in the expression of inflammatory cytokines and enzymes such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. According to the authors, the 1% leaf oil emulgel formulation was considered active against Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms in agar plate assays [146].

Previous reports have shown that organic leaf extracts of P. guajava obtained with a methanol–chloroform mixture (1:1) exhibited antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, with a MIC of 250 µg/mL. In the same study, a 10% (w/w) carbopol gel formulation promoted wound area contraction and faster epithelialization, achieved within 9 days [147]. Additionally, ethyl acetate and acetone leaf extracts inhibited E. coli biofilm formation, with BI₅₀ values of approximately 60 µg/mL, and promoted complete wound closure in BALB/c mice by day 14 at doses particularly for the acetone extract [148].

The bark and inner bark of Ximenia americana L. (“ameixa, ameixeira”) have been consistently cited in ethnobotanical studies as being traditionally used for the treatment of burns and wound healing in the Northeastern region of Brazil [3, 5, 16, 33]. Experimental evidence supports these traditional uses, as hydroalcoholic extracts (2.5%) prepared from leaves, wood, and stem bark promoted the healing of surgically induced skin wounds in Wistar rats, characterized by reduced inflammatory cell infiltration and increased fibroblast proliferation [149]. In a complementary experimental model, a hydroalcoholic extract prepared from the branches of X. americana and incorporated into a 10% Lanette-based cream significantly increased the number of fibroblasts, collagen fibers, and blood vessels, accelerating the wound-healing process [150]. In the study reported by Palma et al. [149], the stem bark extract exhibited the most pronounced fibroplastic response, and phytochemical analyses revealed the presence of flavonoids, saponins, and steroids, with tannins suggested as the main compounds potentially responsible for the observed biological activities.

Notably, the most potent antibacterial activity reported for root-derived extracts was observed against enteric pathogens, including Proteus mirabilis, Shigella boydii, S. flexneri, and Salmonella typhi, with low MIC values (25–50 µg/mL) [151]. In the same study, these root fractions were also evaluated in antidiarrheal assays, supporting the relevance of their antibacterial activity against gastrointestinal pathogens. In addition, the dichloromethane root extract exhibited activity against M. tuberculosis, with a MIC value of 125 µg/mL [152].

Five native species of the genus Piper, Piper aduncum L., Piper amalago L., Piper gaudichaudianum Kunth, Piper peltatum L., and Piper umbellatum L., have been ethnobotanically reported as treatments for wounds, skin infections, erysipelas, and related conditions in the Northern, Northeastern, and Southern regions of Brazil [19, 27, 29].

For P. aduncum L. (“pimenta de macaco”), ointments prepared from ethanolic leaf extracts at concentrations of 5, 10, and 15% promoted wound healing in mice, reducing wound size, epithelialization time, and improving collagen fiber deposition and fibroblast scores [153]. In addition, hexane extracts obtained from the leaves and inflorescences exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with notable activity of the inflorescence extract against E. coli (MIC 20 µg/mL) [154, 155] and multidrug-resistant S. aureus (MIC 16 µg/mL) [156].

Regarding P. amalago L., popularly known in Brazil as “jaborandi-manso,” a case report described the successful topical use of an aqueous leaf extract in the healing of a lacerated wound in a patient with type 2 diabetes mellitus after 15 days of treatment [157]. More recently, oral administration of an ethanolic leaf extract (100 mg/kg) in Wistar rats reduced the extent of cutaneous necrosis and improved the wound-healing process [158]. From an antimicrobial perspective, the leaf essential oil showed activity against B. cereus (MIC 313 µg/mL), while the chloroform extract inhibited Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris with a MIC of 62.3 µg/mL, a Gram-positive bacterium of relevance to the food industry [159, 160].

P. gaudichaudianum Kunth, popularly known as “pariparoba” or “jaborandi,” lacks direct evidence supporting its use for skin wound healing. However, essential oils obtained from its aerial parts inhibited neutrophil migration in an antichemotactic assay in rats, indicating anti-inflammatory potential [161]. Although the leaf essential oil showed limited intrinsic antibacterial activity, it potentiated the effects of norfloxacin [162] and gentamicin [163] against antibiotic-resistant S. aureus, as well as gentamicin and amikacin against E. coli [164]. Additionally, it promoted biofilm disaggregation of S. aureus ATCC 25923 at concentrations ranging from 25 to 100 µg/mL [162].

P. peltatum L., popularly known in Brazil as “mão-de-macaco” or “caapeba,” demonstrated antibacterial activity against B. subtilis (MIC 31.25 µg/mL) and S. aureus (MIC 125 µg/mL) [164], as well as against A. acidoterrestris (MIC/MBC 15.62 µg/mL) [165]. However, despite its traditional use for treating erysipelas [26], no experimental evidence has been reported for activity against Streptococcus pyogenes, the classical etiological agent of this condition.

Finally, although hydroethanolic leaf extracts of P. umbellatum L. (syn. Pothomorphe umbellata), known in Brazil as “pariparoba,” have demonstrated healing activity in chronic ulcer models [166], studies evaluating its wound-healing activity are lacking. Nevertheless, its essential oils exhibited antibacterial activity against S. aureus (MIC 156 µg/mL) [167], and a benzene extract yielded the alkaloid N-benzoylmescaline, which showed remarkable activity against H. pylori (MIC 2.5 µg/mL) [168].

Three species of the genus Plantago were cited: Plantago major L. (“tansagem”), Plantago sparsiflora Michx. (“tanchagem”), and Plantago tomentosa Lam. (“tansagem-silvestre, língua-de-vaca”), for the treatment of wounds and skin conditions in Brazil. P. major L., an exotic species, showed the highest number of records, with leaf use reported in the Northeastern and Southeastern regions [19, 23], whereas P. sparsiflora Michx. was cited in the Central-Western region with the use of different plant parts [21]. P. tomentosa Lam., a native species, showed a more localized use in the Southern region, restricted to the leaves [33].

A topical 10% (v/v) hydroalcoholic extract of P. major was reported to reduce wound size in patients with chronic ulcers, including diabetic foot and pressure ulcers [169]. Similarly, a 10% ointment prepared from aqueous leaf and branch extracts, applied to patients with second-degree burn injuries, resulted in wound recovery comparable to the control group; notably, by day seven, all wound cultures were negative, suggesting an antiseptic contribution to the healing process [170].

For P. tomentosa, an ethanolic leaf extract demonstrated wound-healing activity in a postoperative model in female dogs, with reduced incision length and improved epithelialization, accompanied by fewer inflammatory signs such as pain, secretion, and erythema [171]. These effects were associated with the presence of flavonoids, compounds known for their anti-inflammatory and regenerative properties.

In contrast, antibacterial evidence for P. tomentosa remains scarce, and no studies reporting MIC values within the established cutoff (≤ 350 µg/mL) were identified. Conversely, robust antibacterial activity has been reported for P. major, whose hydroethanolic leaf and root extracts, rich in phenolic compounds such as quercetin 7-rutinoside and dicaffeoylquinic acid, were active against E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, with MIC values ranging from 2 to 4 µg/mL, as well as notable antibiofilm activity (MIC 2 µg/mL) [172].

Of the five Solanum species associated with wound care and skin problems, the native Solanum americanum (“erva-moura”), Solanum aculeatissimum (“joá or rebenta-boi”), and Solanum scapsicoides (“arrebenta-cavalo”) stand out, whereas the exotic Solanum lycopersicum (“tomate”) and S. tuberosum are mentioned only occasionally for erysipelas and burns, with uses ranging from the fruits to the whole plant [18, 20, 23, 27, 29, 31].

Consistent experimental evidence of wound-healing activity was identified for S. lycopersicum and S. tuberosum. In the case of S. tuberosum, experimental studies were conducted in murine models of excisional wounds and burns, as well as in human clinical trials involving burn injuries. These studies generally employed preparations derived from the tubers, typically ethanolic extracts incorporated into 1–2% ointments [173, 174], or boiled or triturated potato peel applied directly as a biological dressing on burns [175, 176]. The studies demonstrated a significant acceleration in wound closure accompanied by reduced inflammation, with indications that steroidal glycoalkaloids may be involved in this response [176]. Additionally, greater fibroblast organization, enhanced collagen deposition, and faster epithelialization were observed when compared with both negative and positive controls. These effects have been attributed to the high concentration of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in tubers, such as chlorogenic acid [174]. In burn models, similar outcomes were observed, including reorganization of epidermal layers, increased granulation tissue, and improved alignment of collagen fibers [173].

For S. lycopersicum, in vivo models using cherry tomato extracts incorporated into topical gels showed a significant increase in wound contraction, particularly with 16% formulations, as well as improved histological organization of the skin in Wistar rats, with lycopene, an intense antioxidant compound, being suggested as the active constituent [177].

In contrast, S. americanum, a species occurring in Brazil, showed significant wound-healing activity of the aqueous extract from its aerial parts in open wound models in rabbits and calves, characterized by reduced inflammation, accelerated wound contraction, and increased collagen deposition. In addition, the extract was evaluated against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and an antiseptic effect was suggested, attributed to the presence of glycoalkaloids and saponins, although antibacterial activity was observed only at relatively high concentrations (> 1,000 µg/mL) [178].

The antibacterial activity was observed for aqueous and ethanolic fruit extracts of S. lycopersicum against B. cereus, with an MIC of 130 µg/mL isolated from wound patients in hospitals in Nigeria [179]. In the case of S. tuberosum, the methanolic extract of the tubers showed MIC values of 312 µg/mL against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus [180]. A more recent study also identified antimicrobial activity of anthocyanins extracted from pigmented tubers against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with MICs ranging from 16 to 250 µg/mL [181].