This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of the extract and fractions of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and also profiled the secondary metabolites of its most active fraction.
Methods:
The leaves of E. camaldulensis were collected, authenticated and extracted with methanol. The extract (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg), normal saline (negative control), and aspirin (positive control) were administered orally to egg-induced paw oedema rats of five groups of five rats each. The extract was partitioned, and each of the solvent fractions was assayed for its anti-inflammatory activity. The results obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni post hoc tests, and p < 0.05 was considered significant. Also, the most active fraction was subjected to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis.
Results:
The extract at 100 mg/kg demonstrated the best anti-inflammatory effect at 29%, while the n-hexane (N-HEX) fraction gave the highest inflammatory inhibition at 43%. α-Phellandrene, o-cymene, n-hexadecanoic acid, and beta-sitosterol were identified as the most abundant compounds in the N-HEX fraction.
Conclusions:
The study concluded that the methanol extract of E. camaldulensis possesses good anti-inflammatory properties, and its non-polar fraction was responsible for the observed activity. Bioassay-guided purification of anti-inflammatory constituents of the N-HEX fraction is recommended for future studies.
Inflammation is a complex biological response of the immune system to harmful stimuli, including pathogens and non-pathogens [1]. It is primarily caused by factors such as toxic chemicals, environmental agents, trauma, overuse, or infection [2, 3]. Inflammation plays a crucial role in wound healing and infection control, but it is also linked to chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease and cancer [4, 5].
There are two main types of inflammation: acute and chronic. Acute inflammation has a rapid onset, typically resolving within a few days, and is characterized by classic signs and symptoms, including erythema, swelling, and pain [6, 7]. Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, has a slow onset and long duration, often persisting for years, and is characterized by a cellular infiltrate composed of monocytes, macrophages, and lymphocytes [8, 9].
During an inflammatory response, activated immune cells produce and secrete pro-inflammatory mediators, including histamine, serotonin, eicosanoids, and cytokines [10, 11]. These mediators play a crucial role in destroying the effects of inflammation and promoting tissue repair [11]. Inflammation is a complex biological response that plays a crucial role in maintaining tissue homeostasis. Understanding the mechanisms of inflammation and the role of inflammatory mediators can provide insights into the development of new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of inflammatory diseases [12, 13].
Medicinal plants, such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, have been traditionally used to treat various diseases, including inflammatory conditions [14]. E. camaldulensis Dehn. (family: Myrtaceae) is a medium-sized to tall (30 m), evergreen and perennial tree [15]. In Nigeria, E. camaldulensis is widely used in traditional medicine to manage a variety of ailments [16, 17]. It is primarily employed in the treatment of respiratory conditions such as sore throat, cough, and other lung-related diseases, owing to the expectorant and antibacterial properties of its essential oils [18]. Additionally, the plant is used to treat skin infections, typhoid fever, malaria, as well as gastrointestinal disorders, including diarrhea and dysentery [19]. Various pharmacological activities have been reported for different morphological parts of E. camaldulensis, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-nociceptive, cytotoxic, insecticidal, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties [16, 20–26].
Several phytoconstituents have been reported in E. camaldulensis, contributing to its pharmacological activities. These include essential oils, sterols, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, polyphenols, and terpenoids [27–30]. However, previous studies did not identify the specific fraction(s) responsible for the observed bioactivities. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of the methanol extract and its partitioned fractions of E. camaldulensis leaves. It also identifies the chemical constituents of its most active fraction.
Materials and methodsMaterials and reagents
The following equipment and reagents were used in this study: rotary evaporator (RE301/601/801 model, Yamato Scientific America, Inc., U.S.A), chiller (Churchill, Instrument Co. Ltd, U.K), vacuum pump (MB 338618 model, Edwards High Vacuum Int., England), oven (Hearson & Co. Ltd, London), Mettler electronic weighing balance (AB 54 model, Mettler Toledo, U.S.A), methanol, n-hexane (N-HEX, GFS Chemical Inc), dichloromethane (DCM, GFS Chemical Inc), ethyl acetate (EtOAc, GFS Chemical Inc), Tween 80, normal saline.
Plant collection and extraction
The leaves of E. camaldulensis were collected from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife campus. A voucher specimen of the plant was prepared and deposited in the Faculty of Pharmacy herbarium, where the voucher number FPI 2356 was obtained. The plant material was air-dried, pulverized, and sealed in an air-tight nylon bag. Five hundred grams (500 g) of the plant material was extracted with methanol (1 L) three times for 48 h each to obtain both polar and non-polar chemical constituents. The methanolic solution was filtered and concentrated with a rotary evaporator to obtain the crude extract (76 g). Thereafter, the extract was suspended in distilled water and partitioned successively into N-HEX, DCM, and EtOAc to afford N-HEX (19 g), DCM (16 g), EtOAc (10 g), and aqueous (AQ, 23 g) fractions.
Experimental animals
The Animal Breeding House, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, supplied healthy male Wistar rats (120–150 g), which were acclimated for two weeks. Standard rat food (vital feeds) and unlimited water were given to them. The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (The National Academies Press, 2011) was followed in all animal research. Additionally, the Institute of Public Health at Obafemi Awolowo University in Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, granted ethical clearance for the study (HREC NO: IPHOAU/12/1772).
Investigation of the anti-inflammatory property of <italic>E. camaldulensis</italic> leaf extract and fractions
The experimental animals were randomly divided into test (extract/fraction), positive control, and negative control groups, with five animals in each group. A 10% Tween 80 solution served as the negative control, while aspirin was used as the reference drug. The test groups received the extract at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg. Oedema was induced in the rats by injecting 0.1 mL of egg albumin into the subplantar region of the right hind paw in the test, positive, and negative control groups. Thirty minutes after oedema induction, the animals were treated with the extract/fraction, aspirin, and Tween 80 in the respective groups. Paw thickness was measured in millimeters using a digital Vernier caliper before oedema induction and subsequently at 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours post-induction [30]. For the anti-inflammatory activity of the fractions (N-HEX, DCM, EtOAc, and AQ fractions), the most active dose of the extract was adopted for assaying their effect on egg albumin-induced paw oedema, while aspirin and 10% Tween 80 were retained as the positive and negative controls. The percentage inhibition of oedema was calculated using the following formula:
%Inhibition=100(1-Vt/Vc)
Vc represents oedema volume in control; Vt represents oedema volume in the group treated with the extract or fractions.
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of <italic>E. camaldulensis</italic> N-HEX fraction
The phytochemical constituents of the N-HEX fraction of E. camaldulensis were analyzed using GC-MS with a Varian 3800/4000 gas chromatograph coupled to a Varian 4000 mass spectrometer. The system was fitted with an Agilent fused silica capillary CP-Sil 5 CB column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d.). The mass spectrometer operated in electron ionization mode at 70 eV, scanning a mass range of m/z 30–1,000 amu, with the ion source temperature set at 230°C and the quadrupole temperature maintained at 150°C. The oven temperature was initially set at 150°C and gradually increased to a maximum of 300°C. A 1 μL aliquot of the N-HEX fraction, dissolved in acetone, was injected automatically into the GC inlet maintained at 250°C. Nitrogen served as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 0.8 mL/min, and the total analysis time was 40 minutes. Identification of the compounds was performed by comparison with spectra from the National Institute of Standards and Technology mass spectral database (NIST MS Library, 2009). Retention indices were determined relative to a homologous series of n-alkanes (C6–C28) analyzed under identical chromatographic conditions on the same column. The relative abundance of each component was estimated based on peak area normalization without applying response factor corrections.
Data analysis
Data from this study were subjected to GraphPad Prism 5.01 software package using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bonferroni post hoc test. Values were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05 and expressed as mean ± SEM.
ResultsAnti-inflammatory effect of <italic>E. camaldulensis</italic> methanol leaf extract
The results of the anti-inflammatory activity of the methanol extract of E. camaldulensis compared to the negative control and standard drug (aspirin) are presented in Table 1.
Anti-inflammatory effect of the methanol extract of E. camaldulensis.
Treatment group
Baseline paw size (mm)
Paw oedema size (mm) per time (h)
1
2
3
4
Negative control
3.56 ± 0.02b
7.20 ± 0.26a
6.78 ± 0.21a
5.96 ± 0.26a
5.88 ± 0.50a
ECE (100 mg/kg)
3.91 ± 0.03a
5.80 ± 0.24b(19%)
5.56 ± 0.34b(18%)
5.32 ± 0.30a(11%)
4.20 ± 0.17b(29%)
ECE (200 mg/kg)
3.80 ± 0.02a
5.74 ± 0.25b(20%)
5.64 ± 0.14b(17%)
5.12 ± 0.02a(14%)
4.70 ± 0.21a(20%)
ECE (400 mg/kg)
3.79 ± 0.03a
5.80 ± 0.34b(19%)
5.16 ± 0.24b(24%)
5.38 ± 0.32a(10%)
4.92 ± 0.25a(16%)
Aspirin
4.03 ± 0.17a
6.72 ± 0.21a(7%)
6.58 ± 0.22a(3%)
5.50 ± 0.28a(8%)
5.05 ± 0.15a(14%)
ECE: methanol crude extract. Values are expressed as mean ± SEM (n = 5). Values with different superscripts (a and b) within columns are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The results showed that the paw of the rats in the negative control group maintained consistent swelling up to 4 h. The extract at 100 mg/kg demonstrated a significant anti-inflammatory effect after 4 h with 4.20 ± 0.17 (29%) paw size reduction compared to the negative and positive control groups. The 100 mg/kg dose also gave a good anti-inflammatory effect as compared to the 200 and 400 mg/kg doses. Also, the results obtained for the anti-inflammatory effect showed that the activity elicited by the extract is non-time and non-dose dependent.
Anti-inflammatory activity of fractions of <italic>E. camaldulensis</italic>
The active methanol extract of E. camaldulensis was partitioned in order to identify the fraction that may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity elicited by the extract, and the results are presented in Table 2.
Anti-inflammatory effects of E.camaldulensis fractions on egg albumin-induced rat paw oedema.
Treatment group
Baseline paw size (mm)
Paw oedema size (mm) per time (h)
1
2
3
4
NS
3.56 ± 0.02c
7.2 ± 0.26c
6.78 ± 0.21a
5.96 ± 0.26a
5.88 ± 0.50a
N-HEX(100 mg/kg)
3.21 ± 0.01c
5.30 ± 0.23a(26%)
4.80 ± 0.03b(29%)
4.24 ± 0.16b(29%)
3.38 ± 0.09c(43%)
DCM(100 mg/kg)
3.51 ± 0.03c
5.55 ± 0.32a(23%)
4.58 ± 0.22b(32%)
4.32 ± 0.14b(28%)
3.86 ± 0.16b(34%)
EtOAc(100 mg/kg)
3.09 ± 0.02b
4.98 ± 0.21b(31%)
4.88 ± 0.13b(28%)
4.14 ± 0.19b(31%)
4.02 ± 0.13b(32%)
AQ(100 mg/kg)
3.12 ± 0.05b
5.52 ± 0.20a(23%)
4.40 ± 0.20b(35%)
4.50 ± 0.23b(24%)
3.76 ± 0.15b(36%)
Aspirin
4.03 ± 0.17a
6.72 ± 0.21a(7%)
6.58 ± 0.22a(3%)
5.50 ± 0.28a(8%)
5.05 ± 0.15a(14%)
N-HEX: n-hexane; DCM: dichloromethane; EtOAc: ethyl acetate; AQ: aqueous. Values are expressed as mean ± SEM (n = 5). Values with different superscripts (a, b and c) within columns are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The results obtained showed that the N-HEX fraction elicited the highest percentage paw oedema reduction of 3.38 ± 0.09 mm (43%) compared to the positive control. The N-HEX fraction also demonstrated good anti-inflammatory activity compared to the DCM, EtOAc, and AQ fractions. Also, both the N-HEX and DCM fractions gave a time-dependent anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, the activity of the fractions is in the order of N-HEX > AQ > DCM > EtOAc.
GC-MS analysis of the N-HEX fraction
The chemical constituents of the N-HEX, which emerged as the most active fraction, were identified, and the results are presented in Table 3. In this study, α-phellandrene, o-cymene, n-hexadecanoic acid, and beta-sitosterol were identified as the major chemical compounds in the non-polar fraction.
GC-MS analysis of the n-hexane fraction.
S/N
R.T. (min)
Compound detected
MF
MW
Peak
1
7.811
α-Phellandrene
C10H16
136.24
8.45
2
8.036
Cyclohexene, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidene)-
C10H16
136.24
3.14
3
8.146
o-Cymene
C10H14
134.22
7.53
4
11.704
Phenol, 2-methyl-5-(1-methyl ethyl)
C10H14O
150.22
1.27
5
16.913
Neophytadiene
C20H38
278.52
2.55
6
17.635
Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester
C17H34O2
270.45
1.24
7
18.114
n-Hexadecanoic acid
C16H32O2
256.42
4.51
8
19.183
Phytol
C20H40O
296.54
1.36
9
23.122
1-Docosene
C22H44
308.58
1.12
10
26.558
Octacosyl acetate
C30H60O2
452.80
1.67
11
27.153
Stigmastan-3,5-diene
C29H48
396.69
1.17
12
30.497
Beta-sitosterol
C29H50O
414.71
2.98
13
31.270
Oleana-11,13(18)-diene
C30H48
408.70
1.51
Total
38.5
MF: molecular formula; MW: molecular weight; GC-MS: gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Discussion
Inflammation has been implicated in the pathophysiology of various life-threatening diseases. The egg albumin-induced rat paw edema model is a widely recognized method for screening anti-inflammatory agents due to its simplicity, sensitivity, and reproducibility [30–32]. This model primarily targets the early phase of inflammation, characterized by neutrophil infiltration, free radical release, and the induction of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 expression, leading to prostaglandin formation. Egg albumin is known to induce an immune response that activates macrophages, neutrophils, and T cells. These immune cells release cytokines and chemokines that further stimulate inflammation by attracting additional immune cells and releasing inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and histamine [30, 33, 34]. Consequently, these mediators contribute to the hallmark symptoms of inflammation, including swelling, redness, and pain. Given these characteristics, the egg albumin-induced rat paw edema model was selected for this study. Table 1 illustrates the impact of various doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of the methanol leaf extract on egg-albumin-induced rat paw edema. The reduction of the rat paw edema suggests the anti-inflammatory potential of E. camaldulensis methanolic leaf extract.
It was observed that the extract’s anti-inflammatory activity was not dose-dependent. The highest percentage inhibition was observed at 100 mg/kg and the lowest at 400 mg/kg (4 h after treatment) (Table 1). Also, there was a statistical difference between the activity of the extract at 100 mg/kg and the control drug at 4 h post-treatment. However, E. camaldulensis methanolic leaf extract showed higher oedema inhibition at 100–400 mg/kg than aspirin, suggesting the anti-inflammatory property of the extract.
The anti-inflammatory properties of the N-HEX, DCM, EtOAc, and AQ fractions of E. camaldulensis were assayed to understand the class of compounds that may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory activity of the extract (Table 2). All the fractions demonstrated higher anti-inflammatory activity than aspirin at 100 mg/kg. Notably, the N-HEX fraction displayed the highest activity, reducing paw edema by 43% after 4 hours of examination. This indicates that the anti-inflammatory constituents of the extract are predominantly non-polar. This observation corroborates previous research showing that the crude N-HEX extract of E. camaldulensis stem bark possesses significant anti-inflammatory properties [35, 36]. This effect may be attributed to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, cell degranulation, serotonin and bradykinin release, and decreased leukocyte mobilization [36]. Additionally, studies have linked the biological and pharmacological activities of plant extracts to the presence of secondary metabolites [30].
The GC-MS analysis revealed α-phellandrene, o-cymene, n-hexadecanoic acid, and beta-sitosterol. α-Phellandrene has previously been identified as one of the major compounds in Eucalyptus phellandra, and the phytochemical has been proven to demonstrate anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities [37]. Also, Purushothaman et al. [38] reported that n-hexadecanoic acid isolated from Excoecaria agallocha significantly exerted anti-inflammatory responses against hypertonicity-induced haemolysis, protein denaturation and paw oedema. Also, α-phellandrene was reported to be responsible for suppressing NF-κB activity, increasing fibroblast proliferation and suppressing cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 as its dose increased [39, 40]. Furthermore, beta-sitosterol was reported to elicit excellent anti-inflammatory activity, alleviating perianal inflammation and restoring gut microbiota composition in experimental rats [41]. Therefore, the abundance of these phytochemicals in the N-HEX fraction may be attributed to its anti-inflammatory activity.
In conclusion, the extract demonstrated good anti-inflammatory activity at the lowest tested dose. Also, the N-HEX fraction demonstrated the highest anti-inflammatory activity, indicating that the non-polar compounds may be responsible for the observed activity. This is the first report on the anti-inflammatory effect of E. camaldulensis methanol leaf extract and its partitioned fraction on egg albumin-induced paw oedema. The major compounds may be responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory activity. Phytochemical isolation from the N-HEX fraction is recommended for further studies.
In terms of its limitations, the study only evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of the extract and fractions of E. camaldulensis and identified the chemical constituents of its active fraction. A bioassay-guided phytochemical purification of anti-inflammatory compounds can be performed. Also, anti-inflammatory activity of the isolated compounds can be evaluated, followed by in silico studies to elucidate their mechanism of action.
AbbreviationsAQ
aqueous
COX
cyclooxygenase
DCM
dichloromethane
EtOAc
ethyl acetate
GC-MS
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
N-HEX
n-hexane
DeclarationsAuthor contributions
KOF: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision. OEE: Investigation, Methodology, Data curation. SAO: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. AUN: Investigation, Methodology, Data curation. SAA: Investigation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing. EAO: Investigation, Project administration, Writing—review & editing. BOM: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. GA: Investigation, Supervision. MOB: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft. SOF: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing—review & editing. All authors read and approved the submitted version.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
The study was performed according to the ethical clearance of the Institute of Public Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria (HREC NO: IPHOAU/12/1772).
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this manuscript will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.
Open Exploration maintains a neutral stance on jurisdictional claims in published institutional affiliations and maps. All opinions expressed in this article are the personal views of the author(s) and do not represent the stance of the editorial team or the publisher.
BilalMAshrafSZhaoXDietary Component-Induced Inflammation and Its Amelioration by Prebiotics, Probiotics, and SynbioticsFront Nutr2022993145810.3389/fnut.2022.93145835938108PMC9354043HarvanováGDurankováSInflammatory process: Factors inducing inflammation, forms and manifestations of inflammation, immunological significance of the inflammatory reactionAlergol Pol202512546110.5114/pja.2025.147674GusevEZhuravlevaYInflammation: A New Look at an Old ProblemInt J Mol Sci202223459610.3390/ijms2309459635562986PMC9100490SchilrreffPAlexievUChronic Inflammation in Non-Healing Skin Wounds and Promising Natural Bioactive Compounds TreatmentInt J Mol Sci202223492810.3390/ijms2309492835563319PMC9104327MatarDYNgBDarwishOWuMOrgillDPPanayiACSkin Inflammation with a Focus on Wound HealingAdv Wound Care (New Rochelle)2023122698710.1089/wound.2021.012635287486PMC9969897ChopraDShuklaSRanaPKamarMDGaurPBalaMet al.Overview of inflammationTripathiADwivediAGuptaSPoojanSInflammation Resolution and Chronic DiseasesSpringer, Singapore; 2024. pp. 1–18.10.1007/978-981-97-0157-5_1AlAloula ASAlazmiyBSHamranAIAlqahtaniMHAlanaziFAAlsadyMMet al.Acute Inflammatory Response: The Chemistry, Molecular Signals and Regulatory NetworksEgypt J Chem2025KapellosTSBonaguroLGemündIReuschNSaglamAHinkleyERet al.Human Monocyte Subsets and Phenotypes in Major Chronic Inflammatory DiseasesFront Immunol201910203510.3389/fimmu.2019.0203531543877PMC6728754AustermannJRothJBarczyk-KahlertKThe Good and the Bad: Monocytes’ and Macrophages’ Diverse Functions in InflammationCells202211197910.3390/cells1112197935741108PMC9222172LauritanoDMastrangeloFD’OvidioCRonconiGCaraffaAGallengaCEet al.Activation of mast cells by neuropeptides: the role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokinesIJMS202324481110.3390/ijms24054811ZhaoHWuLYanGChenYZhouMWuYet al.Inflammation and tumor progression: signaling pathways and targeted interventionSignal Transduct Target Ther2021626310.1038/s41392-021-00658-5MeizlishMLFranklinRAZhouXMedzhitovRTissue homeostasis and inflammationAnnu Rev Immunol2021395578110.1146/annurev-immunol-061020-053734AliNAAhmedAMHadiHMThe Biochemical and Immunological Landscape of Chronic Inflammatory Diseases: Implications for Tissue HomeostasisCAJMNS202565233910.51699/cajmns.v6i2.2729GhasemianAEslamiMHasanvandFBozorgiHAl-AbodiHREucalyptus camaldulensis properties for use in the eradication of infectionsComp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis201965234710.1016/j.cimid.2019.04.007MustafaMAsifRWahhabZMustafaIAhmadHUmbreenSet al.Holistic healing: the modern role of essential oils in therapeutic and aromatherapy practicesZafarMAAbbasRZImranMTahirSQamarWComplementary and Alternative Medicine: Essential oilsUnique Scientific Publishers, Faisalabad, Pakistan; 2024. pp. 13–23.10.47278/book.CAM/2024.011AdesidaSAOguntimehinSAFamuyiwaFGFaloyeKOOgundeleSBBelloOIet al.Larvicidal and antiplasmodial studies of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae) LeafAdv Trad Med20242411697910.1007/s13596-024-00765-yEkhuemeloDOOnucheMUTembeETCrude Extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Dehnh) Leaves and Bark on Anogeissus leiocarpus (Dc) Guill & Perr and Daniellia oliveri Rolfe, Hutch Wood in Control of Termite (Isoptera: Termitidae)Int J Sci Eng Invest2017666SyukriDMSinghSMedicinal and Nutritional Importance of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Human HealthAnsariMAShoaibSIslamNMedicinal Plants and their Bioactive Compounds in Human Health: Volume 1Springer, Singapore; 2024. pp. 185–99.10.1007/978-981-97-6895-0_10KnezevicPAleksicVSiminNSvircevEPetrovicAMimica-DukicNAntimicrobial activity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis essential oils and their interactions with conventional antimicrobial agents against multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter baumanniiJ Ethnopharmacol20161781253610.1016/j.jep.2015.12.008MondalMQuispeCSarkarCBepariTCAlamMJSahaSet al.Analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential of essential oil of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaf: in vivo and in silico studiesNat Prod Commun2021161934578X21100763410.1177/1934578X211007634SilvaJAbebeWSousaSMDuarteVGMachadoMIMatosFJAnalgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oils of EucalyptusJ Ethnopharmacol2003892778310.1016/j.jep.2003.09.007LiapiCAnifantisGChinouIKourounakisAPTheodosopoulosSGalanopoulouPAntinociceptive properties of 1, 8-cineole and β-pinene, from the essential oil of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves, in rodentsPlanta Med20077312475410.1055/s-2008-1074563SingabANAyoubNAl-SayedEMartiskainenOSinkkonenJPihlajaKPhenolic constituents of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh, with potential antioxidant and cytotoxic activitiesRec Nat Prod2011527180BarbouchaGRahimNBoulebdHBramkiAAndolfiASalvatoreMMet al.Chemical composition, in silico investigations and evaluation of antifungal, antibacterial, insecticidal and repellent activities of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. leaf essential oil from ALGERIAPlants202413322910.3390/plants13223229AleksicSabo VKnezevicPAntimicrobial activity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. plant extracts and essential oils: A reviewInd Crops Prod20191324132910.1016/j.indcrop.2019.02.05132288268PMC7126574MahmoudDogara AAhmedAl-Zahrani AWBradosty SWHamad SHusseinBapir SKAnwar TAntioxidant, α-glucosidase, antimicrobial activities chemical composition and in silico analysis of Eucalyptus camaldulensis dehnhAIMS Biophys20241125580ChengSSHuangCGChenYJYuJJChenWJChangSTChemical compositions and larvicidal activities of leaf essential oils from two eucalyptus speciesBioresour Technol2009100452610.1016/j.biortech.2008.02.038GhareebMAHabibMRMossalemHSAbdel-AzizMSPhytochemical analysis of Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaves extracts and testing its antimicrobial and schistosomicidal activitiesBull Natl Res Cent2018421610.1186/s42269-018-0017-2AnigboroAAAvwiorokoOJCholuCOPhytochemical Constituents, Antimalarial Efficacy, and Protective Effect of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Aqueous Leaf Extract in Plasmodium berghei-Infected MicePrev Nutr Food Sci202025586410.3746/pnf.2020.25.1.5832292756PMC7143017OlajubutuOGOgunremiBIAdewoleAHAwotuyaOIFakolaEGAnyimGet al.Topical anti-inflammatory activity of Petiveria alliacea, chemical profiling and computational investigation of phytoconstituents identified from its active fractionChem Afr202255576510.1007/s42250-022-00339-yAkinloyeOAAlagbeOAUgbajaRNOmotainseSOEvaluation of the modulatory effects of Piper guineense leaves and seeds on egg albumin-induced inflammation in experimental rat modelsJ Ethnopharmacol202025511276210.1016/j.jep.2020.112762EnechiOCOkekeESAwohOEOkoyeCOOdoCKInhibition of phospholipase A2, platelet aggregation and egg albumin induced rat paw oedema as anti-inflammatory effect of Peltophorun pterocarpus stem-barkClin Phytosci202177510.1186/s40816-021-00310-3Lozano-OjalvoDMolinaELópez-FandiñoRRegulation of exacerbated immune responses in human peripheral blood cells by hydrolysed egg white proteinsPLoS One201611e015181310.1371/journal.pone.0151813AbdulkhaleqLAAssiMAAbdullahRZamri-SaadMTaufiq-YapYHHezmeeMNThe crucial roles of inflammatory mediators in inflammation: A reviewVet World2018116273510.14202/vetworld.2018.627-635RibeiroDFreitasMLimaJLFernandesEProinflammatory pathways: the modulation by flavonoidsMed Res Rev20153587793610.1002/med.21347MusaDAObadakiHOAgabaRJAgobieUBamigbaiyeGONwodoOFAnti-inflammatory Activity of n-Hexane Stem Bark Extract of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Dehnh)Nig J Biochem Mol Bio2022315364AparnaVDileepKVMandalPKKarthePSadasivanCHaridasMAnti-inflammatory property of n-hexadecanoic acid: structural evidence and kinetic assessmentChem Biol Drug Des201280434910.1111/j.1747-0285.2012.01418.xPurushothamanRVishnuramGRamanathanTAnti-inflammatory efficacy of n-Hexadecanoic acid from a mangrove plant Excoecaria agallocha L. through in silico, in vitro and in vivoPRENAP2025710020310.1016/j.prenap.2025.100203de Christo SchererMMMarquesFMFigueiraMMPeisinoMCOSchmittEFPKondratyukTPet al.Wound healing activity of terpinolene and α-phellandrene by attenuating inflammation and oxidative stress in vitroJ Tissue Viab20192894910.1016/j.jtv.2019.02.003SiqueiraHDSNetoBSSousaDPGomesBSda SilvaFVCunhaFVMet al.α-Phellandrene, a cyclic monoterpene, attenuates inflammatory response through neutrophil migration inhibition and mast cell degranulationLife Sci2016160273310.1016/j.lfs.2016.07.008Paniagua-PérezRFlores-MondragónGReyes-LegorretaCHerrera-LópezBCervantes-HernándezIMadrigal-SantillánOet al.Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory capacity of beta-sitosterol in rodent assaysAfr J Tradit Complement Altern Med2016141233010.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.1328480389PMC5411862